Paul, an apostle, not of men, neither by man, but by Jesus Christ, and God the Father, who raised him from the dead,

“Since Paul then saw the whole Galatian people in a state of excitement, a flame kindled against their Church, and the edifice shaken and tottering to its fall, filled with the mixed feelings of just anger and despondency, he writes the Epistle as an answer to these charges. This is his aim from the very commencement, for the underminers of his reputation had said, The others were disciples of Christ but this man of the Apostles. Wherefore he begins thus, "Paul, an Apostle not from men, neither through man." For, these deceivers, as I was saying before, had said that this man was the last of all the Apostles and was taught by them, for Peter, James, and John, were both first called, and held a primacy among the disciples, and had also received their doctrines from Christ Himself; and that it was therefore fitting to obey them rather than this man; and that they forbad not circumcision nor the observance of the Law. By this and similar language and by depreciating Paul, and exalting the honor of the other Apostles, though not spoken for the sake of praising them, but of deceiving the Galatians, they induced them to adhere unseasonably to the Law. Hence the propriety of his commencement. As they disparaged his doctrine, saying it came from men, while that of Peter came from Christ, he immediately addresses himself to this point, declaring himself an apostle "not from men, neither through man." It was Ananias who baptized him, but it was not he who delivered him from the way of error and initiated him into the faith; but Christ Himself sent from on high that wondrous voice, whereby He inclosed him in his net. For Peter and his brother, and John and his brother, He called when walking by the seaside, but Paul after His ascension into heaven. And just as these did not require a second call, but straightway left their nets and all that they had, and followed Him, so this man at his first vocation pressed vigorously forward, waging, as soon as he was baptized, an implacable war with the Jews. In this respect he chiefly excelled the other Apostles, as he says, "I labored more abundantly than they all;" at present, however, he makes no such claim, but is content to be placed on a level with them. Indeed his great object was, not to establish any superiority for himself, but, to overthrow the foundation of their error. The not being "from men" has reference to all alike for the Gospel's root and origin is divine, but the not being "through man" is peculiar to the Apostles; for He called them not by men's agency, but by His own. But why does he not speak of his vocation rather than his apostolate, and say, "Paul" called "not by man?" Because here lay the whole question; for they said that the office of a teacher had been committed to him by men, namely by the Apostles, whom therefore it behooved him to obey. But that it was not entrusted to him by men, Luke declares in the words, "As they ministered to the Lord, and fasted, the Holy Ghost said, Separate me Barnabas and Saul." From this passage it is manifest that the power of the Son and Spirit is one, for being commissioned by the Spirit, he says that he was commissioned by Christ. This appears in another place, from his ascription of the things of God to the Spirit, in the words which he addresses to the elders at Miletus: "Take heed unto yourselves, and to all the flock, in the which the Holy Ghost hath made you bishops." Yet in another Epistle he says, "And God hath set some in the Church, first Apostles, secondly prophets, thirdly teachers." Thus he ascribes indifferently the things of the Spirit to God, and the things of God to the Spirit. Here too he stops the mouths of heretics, by the words "through Jesus Christ and God the Father;" for, inasmuch as they said this term "through" was applied to the Son as importing inferiority, see what he does. He ascribes it to the Father, thus teaching us not to prescribe laws to the ineffable Nature, nor define the degrees of Godhead which belong to the Father and Son. For to the words "through Jesus Christ" he has added, "and God the Father;" for if at the mention of the Father alone he had introduced the phrase "through whom," they might have argued sophistically that it was peculiarly applicable to the Father, in that the acts of the Son were to be referred to Him. But he leaves no opening for this cavil, by mentioning at once both the Son and the Father, and making his language apply to both. This he does, not as referring the acts of the Son to the Father, but to show that the expression implies no distinction of Essence. "Who raised Him from the dead." Wherefore is it, O Paul, that, wishing to bring these Judaizers to the faith, you introduce none of those great and illustrious topics which occur in your Epistle to the Philippians, as, "Who, being in the form of God, counted it not a prize to be on an equality with God," or which you afterwards declared in that to the Hebrews, "the effulgence of his glory, and the very image of His substance;" or again, what in the opening of his Gospel the son of thunder sounded forth, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God;" or what Jesus Himself oftentimes declared to the Jews, "that His power and authority was equal to the Father's?" Do you omit all these, and make mention of the economy of His Incarnation only, bringing forward His cross and dying? "Yes," would Paul answer. For had this discourse been addressed to those who had unworthy conceptions of Christ, it would have been well to mention those things; but, inasmuch as the disturbance comes from persons who fear to incur punishment should they abandon the Law, he therefore mentions that whereby all need of the Law is excluded, I mean the benefit conferred on all through the Cross and the Resurrection. To have said that "in the beginning was the Word," and that "He was in the form of God, and made Himself equal with God," and the like, would have declared the divinity of the Word, but would have contributed nothing to the matter in hand. Whereas it was highly pertinent thereto to add, "Who raised Him from the dead," for our chiefest benefit was thus brought to remembrance, and men in general are less interested by discourses concerning the majesty of God, than by those which set forth the benefits which come to mankind. Wherefore, omitting the former topic, he discourses of the benefits which had been conferred on us. But here the heretics insultingly exclaim, "Lo, the Father raises the Son!" For when once infected, they are wilfully deaf to all sublimer doctrines; and taking by itself and insisting on what is of a less exalted nature, and expressed in less exalted terms, either on account of the Son's humanity, or in honor of the Father, or for some other temporary purpose, they outrage, I will not say the Scripture, but themselves. I would fain ask such persons, why they say this? do they hope to prove the Son weak and powerless to raise one body? Nay, verily, faith in Him enabled the very shadows of those who believed in Him to effect the resurrection of the dead. Then believers in Him, though mortal, yet by the very shadows of their earthly bodies, and by the garments which had touched these bodies, could raise the dead, but He could not raise Himself? Is not this manifest madness, a great stretch of folly? Hast thou not heard His saying, "Destroy this Temple, and in three days I will raise it up?" and again, "I have power to lay down my life, and I have power to take it again?" Wherefore then is the Father said to have raised Him up, as also to have done other things which the Son Himself did? It is in honor of the Father, and in compassion to the weakness of the hearers.”

“The exordium is full of a vehement and lofty spirit, and not the exordium only, but also, so to speak, the whole Epistle. For always to address one's disciples with mildness, even when they need severity is not the part of a teacher but it would be the part of a corrupter and enemy. Wherefore our Lord too, though He generally spoke gently to His disciples, here and there uses sterner language, and at one time pronounces a blessing, at another a rebuke. Thus, having said to Peter, "Blessed art thou, Simon Barjona," (Matt. xvi: 17.) and having promised to lay the foundation of the Church upon his confession, shortly afterwards He says, "Get thee behind Me, Satan: thou art a stumbling block unto Me." (Matt. xvi: 23.) Again, on another occasion, "Are ye also even yet without understanding?" (Matt. xv: 16.) And what awe He inspired them with appears from John's saying, that, when they beheld Him conversing with the Samaritan woman, though they reminded Him to take food, no one ventured to say, "What seekest Thou, or why speakest thou with her?" (John iv: 27.) Thus taught, and walking in the steps of his Master, Paul hath varied his discourse according to the need of his disciples, at one time using knife and cautery, at another, applying mild remedies. To the Corinthians he says, "What will ye? shall I come unto you with a rod, or in love, and in a spirit of meekness?" (I Cor. vi: 21.) but to the Galatians, "O foolish Galatians." (Gal. iii: 1.) And not once only, but a second time, also he has employed this reproof, and towards the conclusion he says with a reproachful allusion to them, "Let no man trouble me;" (Gal. vi: 17.) but he soothes them again with the words, "My little children, of whom I am again in travail:" (Gal. iv: 19): and so in many other instances. Now that this Epistle breathes an indignant spirit, is obvious to every one even on the first perusal; but I must explain the cause of his anger against the disciples. Slight and unimportant it could not be, or he would not have used such vehemence. For to be exasperated by common matters is the part of the little-minded, morose, and peevish; just as it is that of the more redolent and sluggish to lose heart in weighty ones. Such a one was not Paul, What then was the offence which roused him? it was grave and momentous, one which was estranging them all from Christ, as he himself says further on, "Behold, I Paul say unto you, that if ye receive circumcision, Christ will profit you nothing;" (Gal. v: 2.) and again, "Ye who would be justified by the Law, ye are fallen away from Grace." (Gal. v: 4.) What then is this? For it must be explained more clearly. Some of the Jews who believed, being held down by the preposessions of Judaism, and at the same time intoxicated by vain-glory, and desirous of obtaining for themselves the dignity of teachers, came to the Galatians, and taught them that the observance of circumcision, sabbaths, and new-moons, was necessary, and that Paul in abolishing these things was not to be borne. For, said they, Peter and James and John, the chiefs of the Apostles and the companions of Christ, forbade them not. Now in fact they did not forbid these things, but this was not by way of delivering positive doctrine, but in condescension to the weakness of the Jewish believers, which condescension Paul had no need of when preaching to the Gentiles; but when he was in Judaea, he employed it himself also. But these deceivers, by withholding the causes both of Paul's condescension and that of his brethren, misled the simpler ones, saying that he was not to be tolerated, for he appeared but yesterday, while Peter and his colleagues were from the first,-that he was a disciple of the Apostles, but they of Christ,-that he was single, but they were many, and pillars of the Church. They accused him too of acting a part; saying, that this very man who forbids circumcision observes the rite elsewhere, and preaches one way to you and another way to others.”

“Why did he not start with what befits the Godhead of Christ, but with the very passion? He did so because they rebelled against him as those who would be punished if they deviated from the law; and so he mentions that thing through which every need of the law has been thrown out. I mean, of course, the cross and the resurrection, which provided the cause for the salvation of all.”

“The Apostle, therefore, writes this epistle to the Galatians, in which he shows that, with the grace of the New Testament coming, the Old Testament ought to be cast aside, so that, once the truth has been fulfilled, the figure may be abandoned; and when these two, namely grace and truth, have been obtained, one arrives at the truth of righteousness and glory. But these two are acquired if, the observance of the legal precepts having been set aside, we fervently insist upon the observance of the Gospel of Christ. The order of this epistle is fitting, in that after the two epistles to the Corinthians — in the first of which the sacraments of the Church are treated, in the second the ministers of these sacraments — the epistle to the Galatians necessarily follows, in which is treated the cessation of the sacraments of the Old Testament. This epistle is divided into two parts: into the salutation, and the epistolary narration, at the words "I marvel that," etc. In the salutation, first the person of the one greeting is set forth; second, the persons greeted are set forth, at the words "to the churches of Galatia," etc.; third, the good that is wished, at the words "grace to you," etc. Concerning the first, first the person principally greeting is set forth, who is described from his name and from his authority. From his name, indeed, when he says "Paul," which is fitting to his humility, because it is interpreted "humble." Hence it is said in 1 Corinthians 16:9: "I am the least of the apostles," etc. Likewise it is fitting to his office, because according to another interpretation it means "mouth of a trumpet," in which the office of preaching is especially signified. Isaiah 58:1: "Lift up your voice like a trumpet," etc. But he is described from authority, when it is said "apostle." Here two things are set forth, namely his authority, and the origin of his authority. His authority, because "apostle," which is the same as "one sent." It should be known that the Apostle, in certain epistles, writes of himself as "servant," showing the name of humility, as in the epistle to the Romans; but in certain others he writes of himself as "apostle," showing his authority. The reason for this is that the Romans were proud, and therefore the Apostle, in order to lead them to humility, writes of himself as "servant," as an example of humility. But to the Galatians, because they were foolish and proud, in order to break them, he names himself "apostle"; and therefore here he sets forth his authority. He describes the origin of his authority when he says "not from men," etc. And first he removes the supposed origin; second he assigns the true one, at the words "but through Jesus Christ," etc. Now the supposed origin was this: that the Galatians had been seduced by false [teachers] to such an extent that they believed the Apostle did not have the same authority that the other apostles had, because he had not been taught by Christ or had lived with him, but had been sent by them, as it were their minister. He therefore removes this opinion when he says "not from men," etc. For some were sent by the whole college of the apostles and disciples. And therefore, showing that he was not sent by them, he says "not from men." For some were sent by some particular one of the apostles, just as Paul at times sent Luke and Titus. And therefore, showing that he was not sent in this way either, he says "nor through man," that is, through any one of the apostles in particular, but through the Holy Spirit, who says, Acts 13:2: "Separate for me," etc. But the true cause of the origin of this authority is Christ Jesus, and therefore he says "but through Jesus Christ, and God the Father." Now this distinction, when he says "through Jesus Christ and God the Father," can be understood either as to the person of the Father and the person of the Son, and then God the Father is one in person, and Jesus Christ another. But the blessed Apostle Paul was sent to preach by both, and by the whole Trinity, because the works of the Trinity are inseparable. No mention is made of the person of the Holy Spirit, because, since he is the union and bond of the two, when the two persons — namely the Father and the Son — are set forth, the Holy Spirit is also understood. Or the aforesaid distinction can be taken as to the nature assumed, namely the human nature, because according to the divine nature there is no distinction between God the Father and Jesus Christ. And then Paul was sent through God the Father, as through the author, and through Jesus Christ, as through the minister. Romans 15:8: "I say that Jesus Christ was a minister," etc. But because the Galatians disparaged the Apostle for not having lived with Christ as the others had, nor having been sent by him, therefore in this respect he especially magnifies himself, because those others were sent by Christ while he was still living in mortal flesh, whereas he himself was sent by Christ already glorified; therefore he says "who" — namely God the Father — "raised him" — namely Jesus Christ, insofar as he is man — "from the dead." As if to say: I am an apostle, not from men, namely the college of apostles, nor through man, namely Christ living in mortal flesh, but I am an apostle through Christ already raised and glorified. Romans 6:9: "Christ, rising from the dead," etc. And because the present life is signified by the left, but the future life by the right, inasmuch as the latter is heavenly and spiritual while the former is temporal, therefore Peter, who was called by Christ while he was still placed in mortal flesh, is placed on the left side in the Pope's seal; but Paul, who was called by Christ already glorified, is placed on the right side. Consequently, when he says "and who are with me," etc., the persons joined with him in greeting are set forth, whom he describes from sweet familiarity, because they are "with me," namely for comfort and help. Proverbs 18:19: "A brother who is helped by a brother," etc. Psalm 132:1: "Behold how good," etc. Likewise from inseparable charity, when he says "brothers"; John 13:35: "By this shall all know," etc. Likewise from universality, when he says "all"; which he adds for this reason, that these people were perhaps so seduced that they would not have regarded the word of Paul. And therefore he says "all who are with me," in order to show that they are witnesses of his truth, and that they might easily understand that they were in error, since they were being rebuked by all. 2 Corinthians 2:6: "Sufficient for him who is such is this rebuke, which is given by many," etc. But he sets forth the persons greeted, when he says "to the churches of Galatia," etc. Here it should be known that, as is touched on in the Gloss, Brennus, leader of the Senones, once, having gathered an army, entered Italy; having passed through it, he came into Greece before the time of Alexander the Great, where, since some of his people remained, in one part of Greece they mixed themselves with the Greeks; hence that province was called Gallograecia; then those people were called Galatians, as if [to say] "white ones." And although the Greeks are of sharp intellect, nevertheless those Galatians were foolish and unstable and rather slow to understand, like the untrainable Gauls, from whom they drew their origin. And therefore below he says to them: "O foolish Galatians," etc. To these, then, he writes this epistle, and these are the persons greeted. Consequently, when he says "grace to you," etc., he sets forth the goods which he wishes for them. And first he sets forth the goods themselves that are wished; second, the author of these goods, at the words "from God the Father," etc. The goods which he wishes for them are two, in which all spiritual things are included. The first is grace, which is the principle of spiritual life, to which is ascribed in the Gloss the remission of sins, which is the first thing in spiritual life. For no one can be in the true spiritual life unless he first dies to sin. The second is peace, which is the quieting of the mind at the end, which is said in the Gloss to be reconciliation to God. And thus, in wishing the beginning and the end of all spiritual goods, the Apostle includes, as it were between two extremes, the desire of every good that is to come to them. Psalm 83:12: "The Lord will give grace and glory." 2 Corinthians, last chapter: "The grace of our Lord," etc. But the author of these goods is God the Father, and therefore he says "from God the Father," etc. Here first the cause of the goods is set forth; second, the manner of causing, at the words "who gave"; third, the giving of thanks for these goods, at the words "to whom be honor," etc. The cause and authority of the goods is God the Father as author, insofar as he is God, and the whole Trinity, which is called the God of all through creation. Wisdom 14:3: "But you, Father, govern," etc. And therefore he says "from God the Father," etc. Likewise the Lord Jesus Christ is the author, as minister, and this insofar as he is man. Romans 15:8: "I say that Jesus Christ [was] a minister," etc. And that grace comes to us through Christ is evident from John 1:17: "Grace and truth came through Jesus Christ," etc. Romans 5: "Justified freely," etc. Peace also is ours through him. John 14:27: "My peace I give to you," etc. But the manner of causing these goods is set forth when he says "who gave up," etc. Here first the efficient cause is set forth, which is the death of Christ. And as to this he says "who gave himself," etc., as if to say: Christ is therefore the author of grace and peace because he gave himself over to death and sustained the cross. Hence the very death of Christ is the efficient cause of grace. Romans 5: "Justified freely," etc.; and Colossians 1:20: "Making peace as to the things in heaven," etc. And he says first "who gave," etc., that is, he offered himself willingly. Ephesians 5:2: "Christ loved us, and gave," etc. Hebrews 2:9: "That he might taste death for all of us." Titus 2:14: "Who gave himself," etc. From which the Apostle clearly argues against them that, if the death of Christ is the sufficient cause of our salvation, and in the sacraments of the New Testament — which have their efficacy from the passion of Christ — grace is conferred, then it is superfluous to observe the legal precepts together with the New Testament, since in them grace is not conferred nor is salvation acquired, because "the law brought no one to perfection," as is found in Hebrews 7:19. Second, the end and usefulness of these goods is set forth, which is the final cause. And it is twofold: one is that we might be freed from past sins, and as to this he says "for our sins," namely to be blotted out and expiated, which is the beginning of our salvation. Apocalypse 1:5: "He loved us," etc. The other end is that he might free us from the power of death, and as to this he says "that he might deliver us from the present," etc. Colossians 1:13: "He delivered us from the power," etc. And he sets forth three things, namely "that he might deliver," he says, "from the present," and "age," and "evil." "That he might deliver [us] from the present," by drawing us to eternal things, through desire and hope. "From the age," that is, from conformity to this world which entices us, so that we may not be conformed to it. Romans 12:2: "Do not be conformed to this age," etc. "Evil," leading us back to the truth of righteousness. And the age is called "evil," not on account of its own nature, since it is good, having been created by God, but on account of the evils which are done in it, as that [text] of Ephesians 5:16: "The days are evil," etc. Genesis 47:9, Jacob said: "The days of the years of my pilgrimage are a hundred and thirty years, few and evil," etc. And although these things are ours through Christ, God the Father is nevertheless not excluded. And therefore, third, the acceptance of the divine will is set forth. Hence he says "according to the will of God and the Father." The Father, I say, of Christ by nature, according to which he proceeds from eternity, as the Word. Psalm 2:7: "Today I have begotten you." John 1:1: "In the beginning was the Word," etc. Likewise, our Father through adoption. John 1:12: "He gave them power," etc. In the first way, the term "God the Father" is taken for the person of the Father alone; in the second way, for the whole Trinity. And because from God our Father, namely from the whole Trinity, all these things come to us through Christ, therefore to him — namely to the whole Trinity — be glory, in himself, and honor, from others, whether it be or is, forever and ever, that is, always. "Amen" is a mark of confirmation. You have, therefore, in sum, in the aforesaid salutation: the authority of the Apostle, by which he breaks their pride; the power of grace, by which he calls them to the observance of the Gospel; and the insufficiency of the legal precepts, that he may call them back from them.”