Thomas Aquinas

Above, the Apostle proved three things about Christ, in which he surpasses the Angels; here he proves a fourth, which he had stated beforehand about him, namely, that he sits at the right hand of majesty, which pertains to his dignity. And concerning this he does two things. For first he brings in the authority of David showing this; second he shows that the Angels fall short of this dignity, at the place, are they not all ministering spirits? Concerning the first he does two things: first he describes the dignity of Christ; second he shows it by a sign, at the place, until I make.

He says therefore, but to which of the Angels did God ever say — as if he were saying: it is not found that God said this to an Angel, but he said it to Christ. And Christ himself, Matth. XXII, v. 43 ss., brings forward this as said of himself. Now this, that he says, sit at my right hand, can be referred to the divine nature, in which Christ is equal to the Father, because he has both judicial and royal power equal to the Father. Io. XVI, 15: all things that the Father has are mine. The Father indeed said this from eternity, because by saying it he begot the Son, and by begetting gave him the equality of the Father. It can also be referred to the human nature, according to which he sits in the greater goods of the Father. But the Father said this then, when he united his Word to human nature. But this was explained more above, where he had said, he sits at the right hand.

Accordingly, when he says until, he shows the dignity of Christ by a sign; where a twofold doubt arises. One, because from eternity all things are subject to the Son inasmuch as he is God. Again, because at the resurrection Christ says: all power has been given to me. What then does he wait for, to be made subject to his footstool? And it must be known that something can be in someone's power in two ways. In one way as to authority, and thus all things from eternity, as to the preordination of things to be done, and in the time in which they existed, are subject to the Son of God inasmuch as he is God, but from the beginning of his conception inasmuch as he is man. In another way as to the exercise of power, and thus not all things are subject to him, but only at the end of the world, because he does not yet exercise power over all things, subjecting all things to himself. Phil. c. III, 21: according to the working by which he is able even to subject all things to himself.

But what is this that he says, footstool? It can be said that by this nothing else is understood than full and perfect subjection. For that is said to be perfectly subject to someone which he himself can trample underfoot. Or again, otherwise, and putting a certain force upon the word: for as God is the head of Christ — I Cor. XI, 3: the head of Christ is God — so the feet of Christ are his humanity. Ps. CXXXI, v. 7: we will worship in the place where his feet stood. I will make, therefore, a footstool, that is, I will subject your enemies not only to your divinity, but also to your humanity.

In this, however, Origen erred. For he wished and understood only one mode of subjection, saying: just as to be subject to light is nothing other than to be illumined, so, since Christ is truth, justice, and goodness, and whatever else of this kind can be said, to be subject to the Savior is nothing other than to be saved. And therefore he held that in the end all things, even the demons, would be saved, because otherwise not all things would be subject to Christ. But this is against what is said in Matth. c. XXV, 41: go, you cursed, into everlasting fire.

Hence it must be known that there is a twofold mode of subjection. One by the will of the subjects, as good servants are subject to their lord, say a king, and thus only the good are subject to Christ in this way. The other by the will of the lord, and thus there is a certain violence on the part of the subjects. And thus the wicked will be subjected to Christ, not because they will his dominion, but because Christ will do his own will concerning them, punishing those who were unwilling here to do his will. And this is properly designated by the footstool, because what is trodden underfoot is crushed. Is. LXVI, 1: heaven is my seat, that is, the heavenly and the good; but the earth, that is, the earthly and the wicked, is the footstool of my feet.

The other doubt concerns this, that he says until, etc., because if he will sit until he makes it, then once he has made it, he will not sit. I answer that expressions of this kind, until and up to, are sometimes put in a finite sense, namely when they mark the terminus of that to which they are joined, as when I say: sit here until I come. But sometimes they are held in an infinite sense, namely when no terminus is set, as when it is said: this man did not repent as long as he lived, because he did not repent after death either. For as Jerome says, that must be designated concerning which there could be doubt. But that which is not doubtful is left to the one who understands. Now it is doubtful of someone whether he repents in his life, but that he does not repent after his death is doubtful to no one. So too in the case at hand; for since many now assail and blaspheme Christ, it seems doubtful whether he sits now; but it is not doubtful whether he will sit when all things will be subject to him, and therefore that is not expressed.

Accordingly he shows that this dignity does not belong to the Angels, when he says, are not all of them ministering spirits, et cetera. Where he does three things: first he shows their office; second, the execution of the office, at the place, into ministry; third, the fruit of the execution, at the place, that they might inherit. He says therefore, are not all, et cetera. Ps. CII, 21: his ministers who do his will. But against this, Dan. VII, 10: thousands of thousands ministered to him, etc., where Gregory says: some minister, others are those who stand by. Therefore not all minister.

I answer. It must be said that, just as we see among craftsmen that there is a twofold kind of craftsmen — for some are, as it were, executing by hand, as hand-craftsmen; others, however, do not execute or work by hand, but are craftsmen who arrange, and as it were direct what is to be done — so too it is among the Angels, for some are, as it were, executing those things which proceed from the divine command to be done concerning us, while others are, as it were, directors, directing the things that are to be done. Taking, then, "ministers" in a broad way, both for those who execute and also for those who command, thus all are ministers or ministering, inasmuch as the higher execute God's will concerning the middle, the middle concerning the lowest, the lowest concerning us. But if those who execute are called ministering, while those who immediately receive from God are called those who stand by, then some minister, some stand by and hand on to others. Those who stand by, then, are those who immediately receive the divine illuminations from God himself; hence they are also named by names related to God, as Seraphim, that is, those loving God; Cherubim, those knowing; thrones, those bearing. Those ministering are not the ones who receive from these, and hand on to others.

But against this seems to be what Gregory says, that those are said to stand by who enjoy the inmost contemplation of God. Since therefore all the Angels see God through his essence, according to that word, Matth. XVIII, 18: their Angels always see the face of my Father — therefore it seems that all are those who stand by.

I answer. It must be said that a certain one among the first students of the books of Dionysius, wishing to save both the saying of the Apostle and the saying of Gregory, said that the lower Angels do not see God through his essence, since they are not those who stand by. And this was John Scotus, who first commented on the books of Dionysius. But this opinion is heretical, because since beatitude is perfected in the vision of God, it would follow that the lower Angels, not seeing God through his essence, would not be blessed. There is also the saying of the Lord, who says, Matth. XVIII, 10: their Angels, et cetera. And therefore it must be said that all see God through his essence, yet not all stand by.

For the evidence of this it must be known that, just as God, by knowing his own essence, also knows himself, and all other things besides himself, so too the Angels, seeing the essence of God, both know him and know all things in him; in which vision indeed they are blessed only because they see God, not because they know things in him. Hence Augustine in the book of the Confessions: blessed is he who sees you, even if he does not see those other things. But he who knows both you and those things is not more blessed on account of those things, but is blessed on account of you alone. But the vision by which they see God through his essence is common to all the blessed. But in the vision by which they know things in God, one of the Angels excels the others; for the higher, as being of a higher nature and intellect, see more things in God than the middle ones do, and the middle more than the lowest. Hence these see all the things that pertain to their office, and the things that are to be carried out by others — which the lower do not see so perfectly, and therefore hand them on to others to be carried out — and on account of this these alone stand by, and yet all see God. And as a sign of this Dionysius says that to certain Angels who ask, God himself answers immediately, as in Is.: who is this that comes from Edom? And he himself answers: I who speak justice. But to certain others he answers through Angels, as that Ps. XXIII, 8: who is this king of glory? The Angels answer, and not God, and say: the Lord of hosts, he is the king of glory. Thus, then, the office of the Angels is clear.

But against this is the fact that here the execution of the office is touched upon when he says, sent into ministry; therefore it seems by this that all execute. Ps. XXXIII, 8: the Angel of the Lord encamps round about him, et cetera. Is. VI, 6: one of the Seraphim, who are in the highest order, flew to me. Therefore if those are sent, much more so are the others. But against this is Dionysius, who says that he received from the Apostle that only the lower are sent, and not the higher.

I answer. Some say that the higher are sent and go out sometimes, for certain causes that arise, to external things. But it seems to me that the higher four, namely Seraphim, Cherubim, thrones, and dominations, are never sent, but the lower are sent, which is clear from their names. For the Virtues are sent to work miracles; the Powers, to ward off the powers of the air; the Principalities, to govern a community or kingdom; and so of the others. But they are called Dominations, because they order all these lower things; while the other three orders take their names from the operation which they exercise immediately concerning God, and dispense it to others.

As to what he says, sent, it must be said that mission is twofold: one which implies local motion, and thus only the lower are sent. The other is a mission which occurs through the application and direction of a new effect in a creature, and thus the Son and the Holy Spirit are sent; and in this way the higher are sent, because their power is sent into the lower, to be sent by these to others. And as to what he says, flew, etc., it must be said that the lower use the names of those by whose power and authority they act, and attribute their own operations to them. And because that lower one carried out his office by the power of a Seraph, he was therefore called by the name of Seraph, not because he was a Seraph by nature.

Then he adds the fruit of the office, when he says, who receive the inheritance of salvation. And although all are called, yet not all receive the inheritance. Those, therefore, who receive it, they obtain the fruit of the mission. Ier. LI, 9: we have healed Babylon, and she is not healed. Or again, when he says, for those who shall inherit, etc., the fruit of the execution is set down, which is, that men may receive the inheritance of salvation. For this reason the whole order of action concerning us exists, that the number of the elect may be completed. Ps. XC, 11: God has commanded his Angels concerning you, et cetera. And he says, for those, not for all, because although all are called, yet few are elect, as it is said Matth. cap. XXIV. And he says inheritance, because to it only sons attain; for if sons, then also heirs. But he says receive, because it is necessary that they acquire the kingdom of God by labor, and study, and solicitude. Matth. XI, 12: the kingdom of heaven suffers violence. Those, therefore, will receive it who are zealous to guard in themselves the Lord's illuminations and inspirations sent through the good Angels, and to commit them to effect; otherwise there will be said to them what is said in Ier. LI, 9: we have healed Babylon, and she is not healed.