Thomas Aquinas

Now he wrote this epistle against the errors of certain men who, converted from Judaism to the faith of Christ, wished to keep the observances of the Law together with the Gospel, as though the grace of Christ did not suffice for salvation. Hence it is also divided into two parts. For first he commends the excellence of Christ in many ways, so that through this he may set the New Testament above the Old; second he deals with those things by which the members are joined to the head, namely, concerning faith, below, chapter 11, where it says, "Now faith is." Now he intends to show the excellence of the New Testament over the Old through the excellence of Christ, with respect to three solemn persons contained in the Old Testament itself: namely, the angels, through whom the law was given. Gal. 3:19: "ordained through angels in the hand of a mediator," etc. With respect to Moses, from whom, or through whom, it was given. John 1:17: "the law was given through Moses," and Deut., last chapter: "there did not arise again a prophet," etc. With respect to the priesthood by which it was ministered, below: "into the first tabernacle the priests always entered, completing the offices of the sacrifices," etc. Hence first he sets Christ above the angels; second above Moses, chapter 3, where it says, "Whence, brothers"; but third, above the priesthood of the Old Testament, chapter 5, where it says, "For every high priest." Concerning the first he does two things: first he sets Christ above the angels in this chapter; second he concludes what sort of reverence is to be shown to the new law, chapter 2, where it says, "Therefore more abundantly." Further, concerning the first he does two things: first he shows the excellence of Christ; second he proves that this is true of Christ, and thus that the angels fall short of that excellence, where it says, "so much the better." Now this is singular in this epistle, that individual words have individual meanings, and keep their own order.

Now he denotes the excellence of Christ with respect to four things. First with respect to the property of his origin, calling him the true, natural Son of God, when he says "has spoken to us in the Son"; second with respect to the greatness of his lordship, where it says "whom he appointed heir of all things"; third with respect to the power of his operation, where it says "through whom also he made the ages"; fourth with respect to the sublimity of his dignity, where it says "who, being the brightness of glory." But since he intends to commend Christ, so that this may redound to the New Testament, through this he sets the New Testament above the Old.

Now concerning the Old Testament he sets down five things. First the manner of its handing down, because "in many ways and by many means," etc.; second the time, when he says "of old"; third the author, or giver, because God; fourth to whom it was handed down, because to our fathers; fifth by what ministers, because "in the prophets." He says therefore "in many ways," and this with respect to the division, which is considered with respect to three things. First with respect to different persons, because it was not to one person but to many, namely to Abraham, to Noah, and so of the others. Second with respect to different times, and all this for the sake of its certainty. Hence Matt. 20:1ff.: "he went out first in the morning (...) and about the third hour," etc. Likewise with respect to the things that were shown there, because they are divine. Ex. 3:14: "I am who am," etc. Likewise future events. Wis. 8:8: "she knows signs and wonders before they happen," etc. Likewise promises of future goods, at least in figure. Ecclus. 3:25: "many things beyond the understanding of men have been shown to you." Likewise "in many ways" with respect to different figures, because now in the figure of a lion, now in the figure of a stone, as Dan. 2:34: "a stone was cut from the mountain without hands." Job 11:6: "and that the law of his mouth is manifold." There follows "and by many means," which refers to three different kinds of visions: namely to bodily vision, as Dan. 5:5: "there appeared fingers as of a hand writing on the wall," etc. Sometimes to some by imaginary vision. Is. 6:1: "I saw the Lord sitting," etc. But to some it appeared by intellectual vision, as to David. Ps. 118:100: "I have understood more than the aged." Hence of these it is said, Hosea 12:10: "I have multiplied visions to them." It also refers to different manners of speaking, because sometimes it spoke plainly, but sometimes obscurely, nor is there any manner of speaking in which the Scripture of the Old Testament does not speak. Prov. 22:20: "behold I have described it to you threefold, in thoughts and knowledge," etc. Third, because it speaks by reproving the wicked, by alluring the just, by instructing the ignorant. 2 Tim. 3:16: "all Scripture, divinely inspired, is useful for teaching, for reproving," etc.

Second he touches on the time of the handing-down of this teaching, which is past time, because "of old," that is, not suddenly, because the things that were said about Christ were so great that they could not be believed unless, with the increase of times, they had first learned them. Hence blessed Gregory says: "through the successions of times the increase of divine knowledge grew." Is. 48:3: "the former things I declared from that time, and they went out of my mouth, and I made them heard," etc.

Third he touches on the author, because it is God who speaks. Ps. 84:9: "I will hear what the Lord speaks in me." Now this is one who does not lie. Num. 23:19: "God is not as a man, that he should lie." Now from these three he commends the Old Testament: namely from authority, because it is from God; from subtlety and from sublimity, because "in many ways and by many means"; from firmness, because "of old."

Fourth he shows to whom it was handed down, because to the fathers. And therefore it is familiar and acceptable to us. Acts 13:32: "we declare to you the promise that was made to our fathers," etc.

But fifth he shows by what ministers, because not by jesters, but "in the prophets," that is, through the prophets. Rom. 1:2: "which he had before promised through the prophets." Acts 10:43: "to him all the prophets bear witness."

Then when he says "lastly," he describes the teaching of the New Testament, and he sets down five things, four of which are different from the four premised, but one is the same in both. For what he had said, "in many ways and by many means," etc., shows that every ordered multitude must be referred to one. Therefore he says that although the manner is manifold, yet the whole is ordered to this last. Prov. 23:17f.: "be in the fear of the Lord all the day, and you shall have hope in the end." Is. 10:22f.: "a shortened completion shall overflow with justice. For the Lord God of hosts will make a completion and a shortening in the midst of all the earth." Likewise, that "of old" was in a time of expectation and of darkness, but this "in these days" is in the time of grace. Rom. 13:12: "the night has gone before, but the day has drawn near," etc.

Here it must be noted that there it says "speaking," but here it says "has spoken," in order to designate the speech of the New Testament as more perfect than that which was in the Old. For the evidence of this it must be known that three things are required for our speech. First, the conception of the word, by which that which is to be spoken by the mouth is first conceived in the mind; second, the expression of the word itself once conceived, by which what is conceived is made known; third, the manifestation of the thing itself expressed, by which the thing expressed becomes evident.

God therefore, in speaking, first conceived, and his conception was one, and from eternity. Job 33:14: "God speaks once" — and this was the eternal generation of the Son, of which it is said in Ps. 2:7: "the Lord said to me: you are my son, today I have begotten you." Second, he expressed this conception, and this in three ways. First in the production of creatures, since the conceived Word, existing as the likeness of the Father, is also the likeness according to which all creatures were made. Gen. 1:3: "God said: let there be light," etc. Second, through certain notions — namely in the minds of the angels, in whom he implanted the likenesses of all things that lay hidden in the Word, and in the minds of holy men — and this through sensible, or intellectual, or imaginary revelations. And therefore every such manifestation proceeding from the eternal Word is called a speaking. Jer. 1:2: "the word of the Lord came," etc. Third, through the assumption of flesh, of which it is said, John 1:14: "the Word was made flesh, and we saw his glory," etc. And therefore Augustine says that the incarnate word is related to the uncreated Word in the way that the word of the voice is related to the word of the heart.

But the first expression, namely in creation, is ordered not to manifestation but to being — Wis. 1: "God created that all things might be." Since therefore expression does not have the character of speech except insofar as it is ordered to manifestation, it is clear that that expression cannot be called speech, and therefore it is never said that God speaks in creating creatures, but that he is known. Rom. 1:20: "the invisible things of God are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made." But the second expression, which is the production of likenesses in the angelic or human mind, is ordered only to the knowledge of the divine wisdom, and therefore it can be called speech. But the third, which is through the assumption of flesh, is ordered to being, and to knowledge, and to express manifestation, because through the assumption of flesh both the Word was made man, and he brought us to perfect knowledge of God. (John 18:37: "for this I was born, that I might bear witness to the truth.") And he manifested himself to us expressly. Bar. 3:38: "after this he was seen upon earth, and conversed with men."

Thus therefore, although God speaks in the New and in the Old Testament, yet he speaks to us more perfectly in the New, because there through revelations in the minds of men, here through the incarnation of the Son. But the Old Testament was handed down to the fathers, who beheld from afar and gazed upon God at a distance; but this to us, namely to the apostles, who saw him in his own person. 1 John 1:1: "which we have heard, and have seen with our eyes, and our hands have handled, of the word of life." Deut. 5:3f.: "he did not make a covenant with our fathers, but with us, who are present here, and we have seen, and he has spoken to us face to face." Hence it is clear that that speaking was promissory. Gal. 3:16: "to Abraham were the promises made." This speaking is one of showing forth. John 1:17: "grace and truth came through Jesus Christ." Likewise, there he spoke "in the prophets," here "in the Son," who is the lord of the prophets. John 1:18: "the only-begotten, who is in the bosom of the Father, he has told us."

But are all those through whom God speaks, prophets? To this it must be said that five things are required for someone to be a true prophet. The first is the revelation of things that exceed human knowledge; otherwise he is not called a prophet but a wise man, as Solomon, whose mind was illumined regarding things that are according to human reason. Hence he is not called a prophet by the Jews, but a wise man. The second is understanding of the things revealed; otherwise, unless he understood the things revealed, he would not be a prophet. Understanding is needed in vision, Dan. 10:1, and hence it is that Nebuchadnezzar, not understanding the revelation made to him, is not called a prophet, but Daniel, who understood it. The third is that the prophet, in the things seen, by which he is carried out of himself, is not held fast in the things themselves, but as in figures; otherwise he would not be a prophet, but a madman, who apprehends the things imagined as the things themselves. Jer. 23:28: "he who has a dream, let him tell a dream, and he who has my word, let him speak my word." The fourth is that he perceive the things revealed with certainty, as one knowing through demonstration, as it were; otherwise it would be a dream, and not prophecy. Is. 50:5: "the Lord has opened my ear, and I do not contradict, I have not gone back." The fifth is that there be present the will to announce the things that have been revealed; hence Daniel too is said by some not to be a prophet, because he did not receive the things revealed in a mode that could be declared; hence it is not said that "the word of the Lord came to Daniel," as is said of the other prophets. Jer. 20:8f.: "the word of the Lord has become to me a reproach, and a derision all the day, and I said: I will not remember him, nor speak any more in his name; and there came to be in my heart, as it were, a burning fire."

But again the question is raised why he says "in the prophets," when he ought rather to have said "through the prophets." To this it must be said that he did this in order to exclude the error of certain men. First indeed the error of Porphyry, who said that the prophets spoke the things they said by feigning, and not from the Holy Spirit. And against this he says "in the prophets," as if to say that they did not speak of themselves, but God spoke in them. 2 Pet. 1:21: "for prophecy was not brought by the will of man, but the holy men of God spoke, inspired by the Holy Spirit." Second, to exclude the error of certain men, who said that prophecy is something natural and is had through a natural disposition, as when someone melancholic is of so strong an imagination that he apprehends the things imagined as certain, and as the things themselves. And therefore he says "has spoken in the prophets," as if to say: prophecy is not had by way of a natural disposition and passion, but through an inward speaking from God. John 3:8: "the Spirit breathes where he wills." Third, against the error of those who said that prophecy is had by way of a habit, like knowledge, namely so that a man may prophesy whenever he wills. This is not true, since the spirit of prophecy is not present to the prophets always, but when their mind is divinely illumined. Hence, 4 Kings 4:27, Elisha says: "her soul is in bitterness, and the Lord has hidden it from me." And therefore he says "in the prophets," as if to say: it is not had by all, and always, as a habit, but by those in whom it pleases God to speak. Fourth, to exclude the error of Priscilla and Montanus, who said that the prophets did not understand the things they said, which is not true. Hence it is said, Haggai 1:3: "the word of the Lord came by the hand of Haggai the prophet"; "by the hand," that is, in his power. And 1 Cor. 14:32: "the spirits of the prophets are subject to the prophets." And therefore he says "in the prophets," that is, in the understanding and power of the prophets.

Thus therefore the property of Christ is clear, that he is a natural son. John 14:10: "the Father is in me, and I in the Father." But is he among those sons of whom it is said in Ps. 81:6: "I have said: you are gods, and all of you sons of the Most High"? Far from it, because they are called sons along with all things, but he is appointed heir and lord of all things. Is he among those sons of whom it is said, John 1:12: "he gave them power to become sons of God," etc.? Indeed not, because they are called made sons, but he is the Son, through whom he also made the ages. Is he among those sons who glory in the hope of the glory of the sons of God? Rom. 5:2. Indeed not, because they are sons through the hope of the glory of God which they have, but he is the very brightness of that glory. Others are called sons because they are made to the image of this Son. Rom. 8:29: "whom he foreknew to become conformed to the image of his Son"; but he is the very image, and the figure of his substance. Others are called sons as containing in themselves the word of God, according to that word of Phil. 2:15: "that they may be without blame, and simple sons of God, without reproof, in the midst of a crooked and perverse nation, among whom you shine as lights in the world, holding the word of life." But this Son carries all things by the word of his power. Therefore the excellence of Christ is clear with respect to the property of his origin, and at large with respect to the other sons of God; through which the eminence of the New Testament over the Old is shown.

But nevertheless in both places it says "has spoken," or "speaking," and this denotes that the same one is the author of the Old and the New Testament, against the Manichean. Eph. 2:18: "through him we both have access in one Spirit," etc. Rom. 3:29: "is he the God of the Jews only? Is he not also of the Gentiles?" Likewise that was handed down to our fathers, but this to us, that is, to the apostles, who saw Christ in his own person. Deut. 5:3: "he did not make a covenant with our fathers, but with us, who are present and living here." Likewise that was through the prophets, but this is in the Son, that is, through the Son, who is the lord of the prophets. John 1:18: "the only-begotten, who is in the bosom of the Father, he has declared." And on this occasion the Apostle introduces that he is the Son.

Consequently he shows the greatness of Christ's lordship, when he says "whom he appointed heir"; because, as it is said, Gal. 4:7: "if a son, then an heir also through God." But in Christ there are two natures, namely divine and human. According, therefore, as he is a natural son, he is not appointed heir, but is a natural heir; but insofar as he is man, he was made a son of God. Rom. 1:3: "who was made to him of the seed of David according to the flesh." And according to this he is appointed heir of all things, as the true son of the Father. Matt., last chapter: "all power has been given to me." And this with respect to the whole creation, over which he received lordship. Likewise not only with respect to one race of men, but of all, namely both of the Jews and of the Gentiles. Ps. 2:8: "ask of me, and I will give you the nations for your inheritance," etc. "Whom he appointed heir of all things."

Having shown the excellence of Christ with respect to the property of his origin, here he shows his excellence with respect to the majesty of his lordship; and indeed he fittingly joins together "has spoken in the Son" and "appointed heir," because "if sons, then heirs also," Rom. 8:17. Now it must be known that in Christ there are two natures, namely divine and human; but according to the divine nature, just as he is not appointed son, since he is a natural son from eternity, so neither is he appointed heir, but from eternity he is a natural heir. But according to the human nature, just as he was made a son of God — Rom. 1:3: "who was made to him of the seed of David according to the flesh" — so too he was made heir of all things. And with respect to this he says "whom he appointed heir," that is, lord, of all things. Matt. 21:38: "this is the heir, come, let us kill him." Micah 1:15: "yet will I bring an heir to you who dwell in Maresa; the glory of Israel shall come even to Odollam."

And indeed according to the divine nature it belongs to Christ to be an heir begotten, and lord. And first indeed, because he himself is the power of God, and the wisdom of God, 1 Cor. 1:24, through whom the Father makes all things. And therefore if the Father is called lord of all by reason of creation, likewise also the Son, through whom all things are brought into being, is lord. Prov. 8:30: "I was with him, forming all things." Second, because the Son is the Father's wisdom, by which he governs all things. Wis. 8:1 it is said of wisdom: "she reaches from end to end," etc. If therefore the Father is called lord by reason of governance — Wis. 14:3: "but you, Father, govern all things," etc. — then lordship also belongs to the Son. Likewise the Father is lord, inasmuch as all things are ordered to him, as to the first principle, and the end of all things; likewise also the Son, who is the wisdom of God, preceding all things, is lord. Ecclus. 1:3: "the wisdom of God going before all things — who shall search it out?" Prov. 16:4: "the Lord has made all things for himself."

But according to the human nature it also belongs to Christ to be appointed heir and lord of all things. First indeed by reason of the union, from this very fact, namely, that that man was assumed into the person of the Son of God. Acts 5:31: "this one God has appointed lord and savior." Eph. 1:21: "he set him above every principality and power," etc. Second by reason of power, because all things obey him, and serve him. Matt., last chapter: "all power in heaven has been given to me," etc. Third by reason of subjection. Phil. 2:10: "at the name of Jesus every knee should bow," etc. But he says "of all things," which refers to the whole universality of nature, over which he received lordship, according to that word of Ps. 8:8: "you have subjected all things under his feet." Likewise it refers to every race of men, so that the sense is: of all, that is, both of the Jews, and also of all other men, according to that word of Ps. 2:8: "ask of me, and I will give you the nations for your inheritance," etc. And of this it is said, Esther 13:11: "you are the Lord of all."

Consequently, when he says "through whom he also made the ages," he shows the power of Christ's operation, why he was appointed heir of all things — not that he himself came to be in time and merited this by the merit of a good life, as Photinus says, but that all things were made through him equally, as also through the Father. For through him the Father made the ages. But it must be known that this preposition "through" denotes the cause of an act. But this is in two ways: in one way, because it is the cause of the making on the part of the one making, as when, namely, the causal term to which it is joined is the cause of the action according as it goes out from the agent. For the making is always a medium between the one making and the thing made. It can therefore denote, with respect to the agent, a final cause, as a craftsman works for profit; sometimes a formal cause, as fire heats through heat; but sometimes an efficient cause, as a bailiff acts through the king. In none of these ways is the Son the cause of the Father, that the Father should operate through him, just as neither that he should be from him. But sometimes the causal term is the cause of the action according as it terminates at the thing made, as a craftsman works by means of a hammer. For the hammer is not the cause of the craftsman, that he act, but it is the cause to the thing crafted, that it should proceed from the craftsman — as to the iron, that it receive the operation from the craftsman — and thus the Son is the cause of the thing made, and the Father operates through the Son.

But is the Son less than the Father? It seems that he is, because that which is the cause of the thing made, that it be made, seems to have the character of an instrument. But to this it must be said that if there were not the same power numerically in the Son and the Father, and the same operation, the objection would hold. Now, therefore, the power and operation of the Father and the Son are the same, just as their nature and being are also the same, and the Father is said to make the ages through him, because he begot him as one operating the ages. John 5:19: "whatever the Father does, the Son also does."

"Age" is said of the span of a temporal thing. The ages, therefore, are the successions of times; he did not, therefore, make only everlasting times, according as certain philosophers said that God made only what is everlasting, and that the angels created things temporal, but he also made temporal things, which he here calls ages. Below, 11:3: "by faith we understand that the ages were fitted together." John 1:3: "all things were made through him." In this, therefore, he removes the error of the Manichean in two ways. First in this, that he says he is the author of the Old Testament; second, that he says he made temporal things.