Commentary on Hebrews (Super Epistolam ad Hebraeos Lectura)

Above, the Apostle showed in many ways the excellence of Christ, preferring him to the Angels, to Moses, and to Aaron, and admonished the faithful that they ought to be joined to Christ himself. And because this joining comes about chiefly and initially through faith — Eph. 3:17: that Christ may dwell through faith in your hearts — the Apostle therefore proceeds to the commendation of faith.

And concerning this he does three things: first, he describes faith; second, he sets down various examples of it, at the words "for in this"; third, he exhorts them to the things that belong to faith, in chapter 12, at the words "therefore you... so great." Chapter, at the words "therefore you... so great." He sets down the definition of faith completely, indeed, but obscurely.

Hence it must be known that one wishing to define perfectly any virtue must touch upon its proper matter, that with which it is concerned, and its end, because a habit is known through its act, and an act through its object. And therefore it is necessary to touch upon the act, and its order to the object and the end. Thus one wishing to define fortitude must touch upon its proper matter, that with which it is concerned, namely fears and acts of daring, and its end, namely the good of the commonwealth, so that it may be said that fortitude is the virtue that moderates these, for the sake of the good of the commonwealth. But since faith, a theological virtue, has the same thing for its object and its end, namely God: first, therefore, he sets down the order and the end; second, the proper matter, at the words "the evidence of things not appearing."

But it must be known that the act of faith is to believe, which is an act of the intellect determined to one thing, at the command of the will. Hence to believe is to think something with assent, as Augustine says in the book On the Predestination of the Saints. And therefore the object of faith and the end of the will must correspond to each other. Now the First Truth is the object of faith, in which indeed the end of the will consists, namely beatitude, which exists differently in the wayfaring state and in the fatherland; because in the wayfaring state the First Truth is not possessed, and consequently not seen either — since, in those things that are above the soul, to see and to have are the same, as Augustine says in the 73 Questions — but it is only hoped for. Rom. 8, Questions, but it is only hoped for. Rom. 8, v. 25, 24: for what we do not see, we hope for. For what a man sees, why does he hope for it? Therefore the First Truth, not seen but hoped for, is the end of the will in the wayfaring state, and consequently the object of faith, since the same thing serves it as end and as object.

But the last end simply of faith itself in the fatherland, which we intend from faith, is beatitude, which consists in the open vision of God. John 17:3: this is eternal life, that they may know thee the only true God, etc. And 20:29: blessed are they who have not seen and have believed. And such is the hope of the faithful. 1 Peter 1:3: he has regenerated us unto a living hope. The end of faith in the wayfaring state, therefore, is the attainment of the thing hoped for, namely eternal beatitude. And therefore he says "of things to be hoped for."

But here it is asked why, since faith is prior to hope, it is defined through hope; for the posterior ought to be defined through the prior, and not the reverse. I respond. It must be said that the solution is clear from what has already been said, because it has been said that the object and the end of faith are the same. Since, therefore, the attainment of the thing hoped for is its end, it must also be its object. Now it was said above that every habit ought to be defined through the order of its act to its object. But the true and the good, although considered in themselves they are convertible as to their supposits, nevertheless, insofar as they differ in notion, stand toward one another in a different order; for the true is a certain good, and the good is a certain true. And likewise the intellect and the will, which are distinguished according to the distinction of the true and the good, have between themselves a different order. For insofar as the intellect apprehends truth and whatever is contained in it, thus the true is a certain good, and thus the good is under the true. But insofar as the will moves, thus the true is under the good. In the order of knowing, therefore, the intellect is prior, but in the order of moving the will is prior. Since, then, the intellect is moved to the act of faith at the command of the will, as has been said, in the order of moving the will is prior. Therefore the prior is not defined through the posterior; because, as has been said, in the definition of faith it is necessary to set down the order of the act to the object, which is the same as the end. But the end and the good are the same, as is held in Physics 2. But in order to the good the will — of which hope is as of its subject — is prior. But why does he not say "of things to be loved," but "of things to be hoped for"? The reason is that charity is of things present and things absent. Since, then, the end not yet possessed is the object of faith, therefore he says "of things to be hoped for." Nor does it stand in the way that the thing to be hoped for is the object of hope. Because it is necessary that faith, as to an end, be ordered to the object of those virtues by which the will is perfected, since faith belongs to the intellect insofar as it is commanded by the will. But since faith is one — because a habit is called one from the unity of its object — why is it not said "of the thing to be hoped for," but "of the things to be hoped for"?

I respond. It must be said that beatitude, which in itself is essentially one — because it consists in the vision of God, which in itself is one — is the principle and root from which many goods are derived, which are contained under it: such as the endowments of the body, the fellowship of the saints, and many other things. In order to show, then, that all these things pertain to faith, he speaks in the plural.

Now that word which is said, "substance," can be expounded in many ways. In one way, causally, and then it has a twofold sense. One, that it is substance — that is, making the things hoped for stand under in us — which it does in two ways. In one way, as it were by meriting. For from the fact that a man takes his intellect captive and submits it to the things of faith, he merits that he may at some time arrive at seeing that which he hopes for. For vision is the wage of faith. In another way, as it were, by its own property it makes present, so that what is believed to be future in reality is in some way already possessed, provided that one believes in God. In another way substance can be expounded essentially, as though faith were the substance — that is, the essence — of the things to be hoped for. Hence in the Greek it reads hypostasis of the things to be hoped for.

For the essence of beatitude is nothing other than the vision of God. John 17:3: this is eternal life, that they may know thee the only true God, etc. Hence in On the Trinity, chapter 10, Augustine says: this contemplation is promised to us as the end of all actions, etc. The full vision of God itself, therefore, is the essence of beatitude. Now we see this in the liberal sciences, that if anyone wishes to learn one of them, he must first receive its principles, which he must believe when they are handed on to him by a teacher. For it is necessary that one who is learning should believe, as is held in Posterior Analytics 1. And in those principles the whole science is in a certain way contained, just as conclusions are in the premises, and effects in the cause. He, therefore, who has the principles of that science has its substance — for instance, of geometry. And if geometry were the essence of beatitude, he who had the principles of geometry would have, in a certain way, the substance of beatitude. But our faith is that we believe that the blessed will see and enjoy God. And therefore, if we wish to arrive at this, we must believe the principles of this knowledge. And these are the articles of faith, which contain the whole sum of this science, because the vision of God, three and one, makes us blessed. And this is one article. Hence we believe this, and therefore he says "the substance of things to be hoped for." 1 Cor. 13:12: we see now through a glass and in a dark manner, but then face to face; as if he were to say: then we shall be blessed when we shall see face to face that which we now see through a glass and in a dark manner. In these words, therefore, the order of the act of faith to the end is shown, because faith is ordered to the things to be hoped for as a kind of beginning, in which the whole is contained as it were essentially, just as conclusions are in principles.

Next, when he says "the evidence of things not appearing," he touches upon the act of faith with respect to its proper matter. But the proper act of faith, although it is ordered to the will, as has been said, nevertheless is in the intellect as in a subject, because its object is the true, which properly belongs to the intellect. But in the acts of the intellect there is a difference. For some are habits of the intellect which carry with them a certitude of every kind, unto the complete vision of that which is understood, as is clear regarding understanding, which is the habit of first principles; for he who understands that every whole is greater than its part sees this, and is certain. This also the habit of science does; and thus such a habit — understanding and science — produce certitude and vision. But there are certain others which produce neither, namely doubt and opinion. Faith, however, holds a middle place between these, because it has been said that faith produces assent in the intellect, which can happen in two ways. In one way, because the intellect is moved to assent by the evidence of the object, which is knowable through itself, as in the habit of principles, or known through something else which is knowable through itself, as is clear in the science of astronomy. In another way, one assents to something not because of the evidence of the object, by which he is not moved sufficiently; hence he is not certain, but either doubts — namely, when he has no more reason for one side than for the other — or holds an opinion, if indeed he has a reason for one side, though it does not entirely set him at rest, but leaves him with a fear of the opposite. But faith is simply neither of these, because it is neither evident to itself as with the first, nor does it doubt as with the last two, but it is determined to one side with a certain certitude and firm adherence, through a kind of voluntary choice. And divine authority produces this choice, through which choice the intellect is determined, so that it firmly adheres to the things of faith, and assents to them most certainly. And therefore to believe is to know with assent.

The proper matter of the habit of faith, therefore, is things not appearing. For things that appear have recognition, but not faith, as Gregory says. But the act of faith is a certain adherence, which the Apostle calls "evidence," taking the cause for the effect, because evidence produces faith concerning a doubtful matter. For evidence is a reason producing faith concerning a doubtful matter, as Boethius says. Or if we follow the etymology of the name by which it is called "argumentum," as it were arguing the mind, then he takes the effect for the cause, because from the certainty of the thing it comes about that the mind is compelled to assent. Hence "evidence" is said "of things not appearing," that is, a certain apprehension of those things which one does not see.

But if anyone wishes to reduce these words to their proper form, he could say that faith is a habit of the mind by which eternal life is begun in us, making the intellect assent to things not appearing. For where we have "evidence," another text has "conviction," because through divine authority the intellect is convinced to assent to those things which it does not see. It is clear, therefore, that the Apostle defines faith completely, although obscurely. For by this definition faith is distinguished from all things that pertain to the intellect. For by the fact that it is called "evidence," faith is distinguished from opinion, doubt, and suspicion, because through these a firm adherence of the intellect to something is not had. But by the fact that it is called "of things not appearing," it is distinguished from the habit of principles and from science. And by the fact that it is called "of things to be hoped for," it is distinguished from faith taken commonly, which is not ordered to beatitude. For through its proper definition each thing becomes known, and is distinguished from any other, as is the case here. Hence also all the others are reduced to this one.

But it seems that he speaks wrongly in saying "of things not appearing," because, as it is said in John 20:28, Thomas saw and believed. Likewise we believe that God is one, which nevertheless is demonstrated by the philosophers. I respond. It must be said that faith is taken in two ways. In one way, properly, and thus it is of things not seen and not known, as is clear from what has been said. And for this reason, because a greater certitude cannot be had of a conclusion than of the principle from which it is drawn — since principles are always better known than conclusions — therefore, since the principles of faith do not have evidence, neither, consequently, do its conclusions. And therefore the intellect does not assent to the conclusions as to things known, nor as to things seen. In another way, commonly, and thus it excludes every certain knowledge; and thus Augustine speaks in Questions on the Gospel, that faith is concerning certain things which are seen. But the Apostle speaks of the first.

And indeed concerning Thomas it must be said that, as Gregory says, he saw one thing and believed another, because he saw the humanity, and believed the divinity. To that objection about demonstration, it must be said that nothing prevents a thing from being seen by one which is believed by another, as is clear in different states. For what is not seen in the wayfaring state is seen in the fatherland. Hence what I believe, an Angel sees. Likewise, what was seen by the prophets — as that God is one and incorporeal — this is to be believed by the unlearned, just as the unlearned man believes the eclipse which the astronomer sees. And of such things there is faith only in a qualified sense. But there are certain things which simply exceed the state of the present wayfaring life, and of such things there is faith simply.

Above he set down the description of faith; here he shows it by example. And concerning this he does two things. First, in general, he makes his proposal clear; second, in particular, where he says, By faith we understand. As to the first, the continuation is thus: thus therefore I describe and commend faith, nor is this something new, for in this, namely faith, the elders, that is, the holy fathers, obtained testimony, that is, they believed, and were established through faith. Gen. 15:6: Abraham believed God, and it was reputed to him unto justice. Ps. 115:1: I believed, wherefore I spoke. Now among all the fathers of the Old Testament, those two especially, namely David and Abraham, have the testimony of faith. By faith we understand, etc.

In particular he sets it forth through examples of the ancients. And first as to what they believed and taught; second as to what they did, where he says, By faith Abel; third as to what they suffered, where he says, but others were racked.

Now teaching in the Old Testament was twofold. One openly set forth; the other veiled under the covering of figures and mysteries. The first concerned the unity of God and the creation of the world; the second, the mystery of the incarnation and of restoration. Hence, just as they kept the sabbaths in memory of the creation, so we keep the Lord's day in memory of the resurrection.

As to the teaching, then, about the creation of the world, he says, By faith we understand, etc. This can be read in two ways: in one way, that "by the word of God" is in the ablative case. And the sense is: we, like the ancients, by faith, that is, through the teaching of faith, namely of the Old Testament — Gen. 1:3: God said, Let there be made, etc.; Ps. 32:9: He spoke, and they were made — understand that the ages were fitted, that is, disposed, by the word of God, that is, by the command of God. Now this pertains to faith, namely that we understand this, because since faith is of things invisible, the ages also were made of things invisible, namely of prime matter, which, bare and deprived of every form, is invisible, and lacking every species and disposition. Therefore he says, that from things invisible visible things might be made. But this is said rather crudely, although it is true.

In the second way, that "to the word" is in the dative case. And then the sense is: we understand through faith, as before, that the ages were fitted, that is, fitting and corresponding to the word, so that from things invisible, etc. For which reason it must be known that the word of God is the very concept of God, by which he understands himself and other things. Now God is compared to the creature as an artisan to his work. Now we see this, that an artisan produces that which he produces outwardly in the likeness of his concept. Hence he makes a house in matter in the likeness of the house which he formed in his mind; and if the house outside agrees with the house preconceived, the work is ordered in due manner; if not, not. But because the whole creature is disposed in the best way, as produced by an artisan in whom no error or any defect can fall, therefore according to its own manner it agrees most fully with the divine concept. Hence Boethius, in the Consolation: thou thyself most beautiful, bearing the beautiful world in thy mind, and forming it with a like image.

Therefore he says, we understand by faith the ages, that is, the whole universe of creation, to be fitted, that is, fittingly corresponding, to the word, that is, to the concept of God, as the artifact to its art. Ecclus. 1:10: He poured her out, namely his wisdom, upon all his works. There follows, so that from things invisible, etc.

But because among the ancients it was a common conception of the mind that nothing is made from nothing (Physics II), therefore when they saw some new work, they said that it was made from certain invisible things. Hence some held that anything is in anything, as Empedocles and Anaxagoras — of which nothing need be said at present; others held the hiding-away of forms, as Anaxagoras himself; others held it to be from ideas, as Plato; others from intelligence, as Avicenna. Hence according to all these, visible things were made from invisible ideal natures. But we say, according to the aforesaid manner, that visible things were produced from invisible ideal natures in the word of God, through which all things were made. Which natures, even if they are really the same, nevertheless differ according to reason, through the diverse connoted respects with regard to the creature. Hence man was made by one idea, and the horse by another, as Augustine says in the book of Eighty-three Questions. Questions.

Thus, then, the ages were fitted to the word of God, so that from the invisible ideal natures in the word of God, visible things, that is, every creature, might be made.

Now all these words are expressly against the Manichees. For they themselves say that it is not to be cared what a man believes, but only what he does. But the Apostle sets faith as the principle of every work; hence he says that it is the substance, that is, the foundation. Without faith, therefore, works are in vain. Again, they say that nothing is to be believed except that of which a reason is had. Against which he says, of things not appearing. Again, they condemn the Old Testament, saying that it was established by an evil principle, namely by the Devil. Against which he says that the elders obtained testimony in this faith.

Then, when he says, By faith Abel, etc., he shows what the ancient fathers did. And first he shows this concerning the fathers who were before the flood; second, concerning the fathers who were before the law, where he says, By faith he who is called Abraham; third, concerning those who were under the law, where he says, By faith Moses. Before the flood there were three especially acceptable to God, namely Abel, Enoch, Noah. First, then, he sets down the faith of Abel; second, the faith of Enoch, where he says, By faith Enoch; third, the faith of Noah, where he says, By faith Noah.

Now concerning Abel he shows what he did through faith, and what he obtained thereby. By faith Abel offered sacrifice. Hence, just as confession is the testimony of interior faith, so from exterior worship in sacrifice his faith is commended. And from the fact that he offered a choice sacrifice, since it was of the firstlings of the flock and of their fat, his faith is shown to be choice. For the best sacrifice was a sign of choice and proven faith. Mal. 1:14: Cursed is the deceitful man who has in his flock a male, and, making a vow, offers up to the Lord a feeble thing. But concerning the sacrifice of Cain no mention is made as to its excellence, but only that he offered of the fruits of the earth. He says, then, that Abel by faith offered a fuller sacrifice than Cain — not in quantity, but in preciousness — that is, he offered a better sacrifice than Cain, namely to God, because it was to the honor of God. For otherwise it would not have pleased God.

The Gloss says "by a fuller faith," but this is not had in the Greek, because "fuller" is there in the accusative case; which is clear from the manner of speaking, which is comparative — unless it be said: by a fuller faith — that is, one better and more excellent than Cain's — he offered it, since, as has been said, the exterior sacrifice was a sign of interior faith.

Now from faith two things follow: one in life, namely the testimony of righteousness. Hence he says, he obtained testimony that he was righteous, namely through faith. Matt. 23:35: From the blood of Abel the just, etc. Yet it is not on account of this testimony of Christ that he says he obtained the testimony of righteousness, since here he intends to bring in nothing but authorities of the Old Testament — namely, on account of what is said in Gen. 4:4: the Lord had respect to Abel and to his offerings; because the Lord's regard is especially upon the just. Ps. 33:15: The eyes of the Lord are upon the just. And this, God bearing witness to his gifts. Which perhaps was because the gifts were kindled by heavenly fire. And this was the regard of God. Yet he had regard to the offerer himself before his offering, because it is from the goodness of the offerer that an offering is accepted, when it is not sacramental — for the malice of the minister does not change a sacramental goodness; but as to the offerer, that the offering may profit himself, goodness is required in him.

Another testimony he obtained after death. Hence he says, and through it, being dead, he yet speaks, because, as the Gloss says, after death his faith is still commended, since matter is given to us of speaking about him, so that concerning his faith and patience we may give examples for exhorting others to patience. But this is not the Apostle's intention, since everything that he takes here he takes from the Scriptures. Hence it is understood of that which is said in Gen. 4:10: the voice of thy brother's blood cries to me from the earth. Below, 12:24: speaking better than Abel. For this he received through it, that is, through the merit of faith, that being dead, that is, the blood of the dead man, cries to God and speaks to God.

Then, when he says, By faith Enoch, etc., he commends Enoch. And first he sets down his intent; second he proves it, where he says, and he was not found. Now the Apostle makes no mention of his works, because Scripture speaks little of this, but only shows what God did for him: that by faith, that is, through the merit of faith, being translated from the conversation of this life, he is preserved from death in another. Hence he says, that he should not see death. Gen. 5:24: he appeared not, because God took him. And it is true that he has not yet died, yet nevertheless he will die at some time, because the sentence which the Lord inflicted upon the first parents when they sinned — in whatever day thou shalt eat, etc. — remains upon all who are born in any way from Adam, just as also in Christ. Ps. 88:49: What man is he that shall live, and not see death?

But the death of two has been delayed, namely of Enoch and Elijah. And the reason is that the teaching of the Old Testament is ordered to the promises of the New Testament, in which the hope of eternal life is promised to us. Matt. 4:17: Do penance, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand. And therefore, the sentence of death having been given, the Lord willed to lead men into the hope of life; which he did in the fathers of each state, namely of nature, of the law, and of grace. Hence in the first state he gave hope of escaping the necessity of death, and this in Enoch; in the law, in Elijah; in the time of grace, in Christ, through whom the effect of this promise is given to us. And therefore the others will die, but Christ, rising from the dead, dies now no more. But the first two will die by Antichrist. Thus, then, he was translated that he should not see death — not only that he should not feel death — and this in that generation.

Then, when he says, and he was not found, etc., he proves that he had this through the merit of faith; and first he proves that he was translated; second, that he had this on account of faith, where he says, for before his translation. And he proves the first through the authority of Gen. 5:24, which he sets down under other words, because there it is said, he appeared not, because God took him; but here he says, and he was not found, because God translated him. And the sense is the same. Wis. 4:10: Being pleasing to God, he was made beloved, and living among sinners he was translated. For just as it was fitting that man should be expelled from Paradise on account of sin, so it was fitting that the just should be brought in. For this one, through Seth the seventh from Adam, was the best; so Lamech, through Cain the seventh from Adam, was the worst, as being the one who first introduced bigamy against nature.

Then, when he says, before his translation, he proves that he had been translated on account of the merit of faith, because before he was translated, Scripture says of him that he walked with God, which is to consent to and to please God; and on this account God took him; but without faith it is impossible to walk with God and to please God; therefore, etc. He sets down this whole argument as to the premises. And first the major, because he had testimony, before his translation, that he had pleased God, and therefore God translated him. Ecclus. 44:16: For Enoch pleased God, and was translated into Paradise, that he may give wisdom to the nations. But that he pleased God, Scripture shows, which says that he walked with God. Mal. 2:6: he walked with me in peace and equity. Ps. 100:6: he who walked in the unspotted way, he served me. The minor he adds, saying, but without faith it is impossible to please God. Ecclus. 1:34f: By faith it is well-pleasing to him. Rom. 3:28: we account that a man is justified by faith.

Now he proves the minor when he says, he who comes to God must believe. For no one can please God unless he comes to him. James 4:8: draw near to God, and he will draw near to you. Ps. 33:6: come to him and be enlightened. But no one comes to God except through faith, because faith is the light of the intellect. Therefore no one can please God except through faith. Now, one who comes through faith must believe the Lord. For just as we see in any natural motion, that the thing moved must, from the motion, intend two things lest the motion be in vain, namely a certain fixed term, and a certain cause why it should be moved — and the term is prior to the effect that the motion attains — so also in the motion by which someone comes to God, the term of the motion is God himself. Hence he says, he who comes must believe that he is. This he says on account of his eternity. Ex. 3:14: he who is, has sent me. Second, that he know that God has providence over things. For otherwise no one would go to him if he did not hope for some reward from him. Hence he says, and that he is a rewarder to them that seek him. Is. 40:10: behold, the Lord will come, behold, his reward is with him. Now reward is that which a man seeks in labor. Matt. 20:8: call the laborers, and pay them their reward. Which reward is nothing other than God, because man ought to seek nothing outside of him. Gen. 15:1: I am thy protector, and thy reward exceedingly great. For God gives nothing other than himself. Ps. 15:5: the Lord is the portion of my inheritance and of my cup. Lam. 3:24: the Lord is my portion, said my soul, etc. And therefore he says, he is a rewarder to them that seek him. Not anything else. Ps. 104:4: seek the Lord, and be strengthened; seek his face evermore.

But do these two things suffice for salvation? I answer. It must be said that after the sin of the first parent, no one could be saved from the guilt of original sin except through faith in the mediator; but this faith was diversified as to the manner of believing according to the diversity of times and states. But we, to whom so great a benefit has been shown, are more bound to believe than those who were before the coming of Christ; and even then some believed more explicitly, such as the greater ones, and those to whom a special revelation was at some time made. Those also who were under the law believed more explicitly than those before the law, because certain sacraments were given to them, by which Christ was represented as it were through a figure; but for the Gentiles who were saved, it sufficed for them that they believed God to be a rewarder — which reward does not come about except through Christ. Hence they believed implicitly in the mediator.

Now against that which he says, that one must believe that God is, an objection is raised, because it was said above that what is believed cannot be known or seen, but that God is, is demonstrated. I answer. It must be said that knowledge of God can be had in many ways. In one way, through Christ, namely insofar as he is the father of the only-begotten and consubstantial, and the other things which Christ specially taught concerning God the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit, as to the unity of essence, and the Trinity of persons. And this alone is believed, nor in the Old Testament was it believed explicitly except by the greater ones only. In a second way, that God alone is to be worshipped; and this too was believed by the Jews. In a third way, that God is one; and this is known even to the philosophers themselves, and does not fall under faith.

Then, when he says, By faith Noah, he shows what Noah did through faith, and what he obtained thereby, where he says, and of the righteousness. Now concerning him he narrates five things which he did. First, that he believed the words of God concerning the future judgment, which nevertheless was not yet seen. Hence he says, By faith Noah, having received answer concerning things which as yet were not seen — supply: he had believed. Second, from faith he feared. For faith is the principle of fear. Ecclus. 25:16: the fear of God is the beginning of his love, but the beginning of faith is to be cemented to it, namely to fear. And therefore he says, fearing, namely the flood that was promised, which nevertheless was not seen. Therefore faith is of things invisible. Third, he fulfilled the command of God, by making the ark. Hence he says, he fitted the ark, that is, he made it fittingly according to the disposition of God. Fourth, he hoped for salvation from God. Hence he says, unto the salvation of his house, that is, of his family, because they alone were made safe. 1 Pet. 3:20: a few, that is, eight souls, were saved by water. Fifth, from the fact that he did this on account of the aforesaid faith, he condemned the world, that is, he showed worldly men to be damnable. Now the revelation to him concerning the building of the ark was an answer to his desire and to righteousness, which is through faith.

Then, when he says, and of the righteousness which, he shows what he obtained through faith. For just as after someone's death another succeeds to his inheritance, so also, because from the beginning of the world righteousness had not totally failed in the world — since the world still endured — but in the flood the world all but wholly perished, therefore Noah himself was made, as it were, an heir on account of his faith, or of the righteousness which is had through faith; or, just as his fathers were justified through faith, so he himself was made an heir of righteousness through faith, namely an imitator, through faith, of paternal righteousness.

Above, the Apostle set forth the example of faith in the fathers who were before the flood, who were fathers in common both of the Gentiles and of the Jews; here he descends specifically to the fathers who were after the flood, who were specially fathers of the Jews. And first he sets forth the example of the faith of Abraham, who was the father of believers. Hence he also was the first to receive the seal of faith before the law. And first he shows what Abraham did; second, what Isaac did; third, what Jacob did; fourth, what Joseph did. The second, at "by faith concerning things to come"; the third, at "by faith Jacob"; the fourth, at "by faith Joseph." Again, the first is divided into two. For first he sets forth what he did as regards outward and human knowledge; second, what he did as regards God, at "by faith he offered." Concerning the first he does three things. For first he shows what he did as regards dwelling; second, what he did as regards begetting, at "by faith Sara herself"; third, what he did as regards his manner of life, at "according to faith." Likewise, as regards dwelling, he shows two things: first, what he did as regards the first change of place; second, as regards his dwelling in another place, at "by faith he sojourned."

But that he may show that his example concerning Abraham is of great authority, first he sets down the renown of his name, saying: he who is called, namely by God. Gen. 17:5: "thou shalt be called Abraham." Likewise he is called by men. Ecclus. 44:20: "Abraham the great father of a multitude of nations." Such a one, therefore, called by God and proclaimed by men, is worthy to be an example.

Second, he sets forth his example, saying that by faith he obeyed. For by faith we are formed to obey God concerning things unseen. Rom. 1:5: "unto the obedience of faith," etc. To go out into the place which he was to receive for an inheritance, concerning which Gen. 12:1: "Go forth out of thy country, and from thy kindred, and out of thy father's house, and come into the land which I shall show thee." But the Lord was to give him that land for an inheritance. Gen. 13:15: "All the land which thou seest, I will give to thee." But did he not go out of his own land with his father Thare? Therefore he did not go out at the Lord's command, but through his father. I answer. It must be said that with his father he had gone out intending to return again, but at the Lord's command he had gone out into Mesopotamia of Syria, where, his father having died, he intended to remain; but at the Lord's command he came into the land of Canaan. And was this not a wondrous thing, that concerning this he had to have faith, and believe God? Yes, because he went out not knowing whither he went, that is, so that he might go to a thing unknown. But what is unknown is unseen. By that obedience of Abraham it is signified to us that we must go out from every carnal affection, if we wish to have our inheritance. Ps. 44:11: "Forget thy people and thy father's house." Is. 64:4: "Eye hath not seen, O God, besides thee, what things thou hast prepared for them that wait for thee." Hence this inheritance is unknown to us.

Then, when he says "by faith he sojourned," etc., he shows what he did by faith as regards his dwelling. And first he shows what he did; second he adds the reason why, at "for he looked for." For we see that sometimes someone goes out from the land of his birth, and goes elsewhere, so as to make his dwelling there permanent. Thus Abraham did not do; but as a stranger he was in the land of Canaan, and as a stranger he died in it, which is evident because he made there no house nor fixed dwelling, but dwelt in huts and tents, which are movable habitations. Hence mention is always made of tents when [Scripture] speaks of Abraham. Hence at the Lord's command he dwelt there as a stranger. Acts 7:5: "He gave him no inheritance in it, no, not the pace of a foot." Gen. 21:34: "He was a sojourner in the land of the Philistines many days." Which indeed is true as regards that which the Lord was freely to give him, not as regards that which he bought. Hence he says that by faith he sojourned in the land of promise, because it had been frequently promised to him, as is evident from Gen. 12 down to ch. 21, as in a land not his own, which is evident, because ch., as in a land not his own, which is evident, because by dwelling in huts, which are so called from falling, and in movable tents, and because with no intention of returning to his own country, even if he had lived longer — which is evident, because he dwelt with Isaac and Jacob, not indeed together, but successively, who were sons of the promise, since to them the promise was made, Gen. 17:2 and 28:3. And he says "fellow heirs of the promise," by which it is given us to understand that in this world we ought to live as strangers and sojourners. 1 Cor. 7:31: "They that use this world, as if they used it not." Below, at the end: "For we have not here a lasting city, but we seek one to come."

Then, when he says "for he looked for," he shows why they sojourned as strangers, namely because they did not reckon themselves to have anything upon earth, but sought an inheritance, the heavenly city. Ps. 121:2 f.: "Our feet were standing in thy courts, O Jerusalem: Jerusalem, which is built as a city." Is. 33:20: "Thy eyes shall see Jerusalem, a rich habitation, a tabernacle that cannot be removed any further." Not a movable tabernacle. And it is called a city, first, on account of the unity of its citizens, which unity is through peace. Ps. 147:1: "Praise the Lord, O Jerusalem," etc., and it follows: "Who hath placed peace in thy borders." Is. 32:18: "My people shall sit in the beauty of peace, and in the tabernacles of confidence, and in wealthy rest." John 17:22: "That they may be one, as we also are one." Second, it is ordered, which comes about chiefly on account of justice, and not for doing evil. But there is perpetual justice there. Ezek. 48:35: "The name of the city from that day: The Lord is there." Third, it is of itself sufficient for all things that are necessary. For whatever is necessary will be there most perfectly, because there is the state made perfect by the aggregation of all goods. Ps. 121:3: "Jerusalem, which is built as a city, whose participation is in the self-same." This city has foundations, in which he signifies its stability. Is. 33:20: "A tabernacle that cannot be removed any further." But the foundations are the first part of a building. Hence the Angels are the foundations of that city. Ps. 86:1: "The foundations thereof are in the holy mountains." For men will be taken up into the orders of the Angels. But the foundations of the Church are the apostles, Apoc. 21:14. But the author of this city is God himself, not the wisdom of human art. 2 Cor. 5:1: "We know that if our earthly house of this habitation be dissolved, that we have a building of God, a house not made with hands, eternal in heaven." But for the building of any city whatsoever two things are required. The first is the authority of a prince, by whose mediation it may be established, because he is called its founder, from whom it also takes its name, as Rome from Romulus. And thus God is called the founder of that city. Ps. 47:9: "In the city of our God, God hath founded it forever." The second is the manner of ordering it, which commends the wisdom of the craftsman. And thus God is called its craftsman, because it is ordered according to the disposition and wisdom of God. Ps. 47:1: "Great is the Lord, and exceedingly to be praised, in the city of our God," etc. For the due disposition of a work commends its maker. But nowhere does divine wisdom shine forth as it does there. And therefore it is called exceedingly praiseworthy.

Then, when he says "by faith Sara herself," he shows what his wife obtained there by faith. And concerning this he does two things, because first he shows what she herself obtained; second, what was obtained in the children, at "wherefore also from one." But in his wife Sara there were two defects, on account of which it seemed altogether well-nigh impossible for her to be able to conceive. Hence to believe was on her part a matter of great faith. One was, that she was barren. Gen. 11:30: "But Sara was barren." The other, that now, on account of the failing of age, she was not naturally fit for begetting. Gen. 18:11: "It had ceased to be with Sara after the manner of women." Likewise she herself says in the same place: "I am already grown old, and my lord is an old man." The Apostle touches on these two defects. The first when he says "Sara barren"; the second when he says "and beyond the time of age." Yet, these things notwithstanding, she received strength for the conception of seed by faith, namely either her own, or Abraham's, because although it was impossible according to nature that a woman of ninety should conceive by a man of a hundred, yet each believed God, to whom nothing is difficult. Hence he says that she believed him faithful who had re-promised.

But on the contrary, as to Abraham, it seems that he did not believe, because in Gen. 17:17 it is said that he laughed, saying in his heart: "Shall a son, thinkest thou, be born to him that is a hundred years old? And shall Sara that is ninety years old bring forth?" Again as to Sara, in Gen. 18:12 it is said that she laughed secretly, saying: "After I am grown old, and my lord is an old man, shall I give myself to pleasure?" I answer. It must be said that, as to Abraham, his laughter was not of doubt but of wonder. Hence, Rom. 4:20 f.: "He staggered not by distrust, but was strengthened in faith, giving glory to God most fully, knowing that whatsoever God has promised, he is able also to do." Hence his laughter is not even rebuked by God, who knows the hearts of all. But Sara at first doubted at the first promise; but when the Angel had recourse to the power of God, when he said: "Is anything hard to God?" — then she believed, and this was as it were a second promise. And therefore he says that he re-promised, because at the first promising she did not believe, but at the re-promising she did.

But it must be known that all the miraculous conceptions that were in the Old Testament were, as it were, a figure of that greatest miracle which was in the incarnation of Christ. For it was fitting that his birth from a virgin should be prefigured by some things, so as to prepare minds for believing. Yet it could not be prefigured on equal terms, because a figure necessarily falls short of the thing figured. And therefore Scripture shows the virgin's childbearing through the childbearing of barren women, namely Sara, Anna, and Elizabeth. But there is a difference, because Sara miraculously received from God the power of conceiving, yet still from human seed. And therefore it is said here "in the conceiving of seed." But the Blessed Virgin, without seed. Hence in Sara the divine power prepared matter for conceiving only from seed; but in the Blessed Virgin it prepared that most pure matter from blood as well, and with this the power of the Holy Spirit was there in place of seed. For it was not from male seed, but by a mystical breathing, that the Word of God was made flesh.

Then, when he says "wherefore also from one," he shows what was obtained in the children from the power of God, namely the multiplication of seed. Here first the root of this multitude must be considered, which was one, namely Abraham; hence he says "wherefore," namely the merit of faith, "from one," namely Abraham. Is. 51:2: "I called him alone, and blessed him, and multiplied him." Second, his condition must be considered, because he was now as good as dead. Hence he says "and him as good as dead," because he was already old, as was said above. But on the contrary, because after Sara's death he begot many sons of another wife, as is evident in Gen. 15:1 ff. Therefore he wrongly says "as good as dead." I answer. It must be said that an old man can indeed beget from a young woman, but not from an old woman. And thus in himself the power of begetting was dead as regards Sara, but not as regards others. Or it must be said that "from one" is understood, namely the womb of Sara, now as good as dead. Rom. 4:19: "and the dead womb of Sara." Is. 51:2: "Look unto Abraham your father, and to Sara that bore you."

Third, the difference must be considered between those who proceeded from Abraham. For just as not all, as is said in Rom. 9:6 f., who are of Israel, are Israelites, so neither are all those who are of the seed of Abraham sons, but they who are the sons of the promise are reckoned in the seed. Therefore his progeny is divided into two, namely into good and evil. The good are signified by the stars, of whom he says that they arose as the stars of heaven in multitude. Baruch 3:34: "The stars gave light in their watches, and rejoiced." But the evil are signified by the sand of the sea lying alongside, because the evil Jews of the seed of Abraham are conformed to the gentile nations. But sand is shaken on every side by the waves of the sea, so also the evil are shaken by the whirlwinds of the world. Is. 57:20: "The heart of the wicked is like the raging sea." But the Jews were not wholly sand, but as it were sand, because they shared with the Gentiles in evils. Hence they can be called the boundary of the sea. Jer. 5:22: "I have set the sand a bound to the sea." Likewise sand is barren and unfruitful, so also sinners are barren of every work of good fruit. Hence he says that they also arose like the sand which is on the shore of the sea, innumerable. And this is a hyperbolic manner of speaking. Or it is called innumerable, not because it cannot be numbered, but because it cannot easily be numbered. Gen. 22:17: "I will multiply thy seed as the stars of heaven, and as the sand that is on the sea shore."

Above, the Apostle commended the faith of Abraham as to his dwelling and his begetting; here he commends it as to his manner of life up to death. And concerning this he does three things: first he shows what he did through faith; second he sets down one thing that pertains to faith, at the place, For they that say these things; third he shows what he received through faith, at the place, Therefore God is not ashamed.

He commends the faith of Abraham and his sons from perseverance, because they persevered in faith even until death. Matthew 10:22 and 24:13: But he who shall persevere unto the end, he shall be saved. Therefore he says, according to faith all these died, except Enoch. Or, all these, namely Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. And this is better said, because the promise was made to these alone. Likewise he commends them from the long delay of the promises. Hence he says, not having received the promises. But on the contrary, it seems that they did receive the promise. Ezekiel 33:24: Abraham was one, and he possessed the land by inheritance. I answer. It must be said that he "possessed," that is, he first received the promise of possessing, yet he did not actually possess it, as is clear in Acts 7:5. There follows, but beholding them afar off, which was through faith, as if he were to say: gazing upon them with the sight of faith. And perhaps from this passage that responsory for the first Sunday of Advent was taken: Beholding from afar, etc. Isaiah 30:27: Behold, the name of the Lord comes from afar. And greeting them, that is, venerating them. And he speaks, according to Chrysostom, by way of a likeness to sailors, who, when they first see the harbor, burst forth into praise, and greet the city to which they are going. So the holy fathers, seeing through faith Christ who was to come, and the glory which they were to obtain through him, greeted him, that is, venerated him. Psalm 117:26: Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord, God is the Lord, etc. John 8:56: Abraham your father rejoiced that he might see my day; he saw it, and was glad.

Likewise he commends their faith from sincere confession; because, as is said in Romans 10:10: with the heart, belief is unto justice, but with the mouth, confession is made unto salvation. And therefore he says, and confessing that they are pilgrims and strangers upon the earth; for these three called themselves sojourners and pilgrims. For, in Genesis 23:4, Abraham says: I am a sojourner and a pilgrim among you. It is also said by the Lord to Isaac, Genesis 26:2f: Stay in the land that I shall tell you, and journey as a pilgrim in it. Jacob too, 47:9, says: the days of the pilgrimage of my life. Now he is called a pilgrim who is on the way of journeying toward another place. Isaiah 23:7: her own feet shall carry her far off to journey. But a sojourner is one who dwells in a foreign land, and does not intend to go further. But these confessed themselves to be not only sojourners, but also pilgrims. Thus also the holy man does not make his dwelling in the world, but is always at pains to press on toward heaven. Psalm 38:12: I am a sojourner with you, and a pilgrim, as all my fathers were.

Then, when he says, For they that say these things, he shows that this confession pertains to faith. For no one is a stranger and a pilgrim, except him who is outside his homeland and is tending toward it. Since therefore these confess themselves to be strangers and pilgrims upon the earth, they signify that they are tending toward their own homeland, namely the heavenly Jerusalem. Galatians 4:26: That Jerusalem which is above is free. And this is what he says, For they that say these things, signify that they seek a homeland. But because perhaps someone might say — which is true — that they were pilgrims in the land of the Philistines and the Canaanites, among whom they dwelt, yet they intended to return to the land from which they had gone out, he removes this, saying, And truly if they had been mindful of that, namely of their own homeland, from which they went out, they had indeed time to return, since it was near. But now they desire a better one, that is, a heavenly one; hence in Genesis 24:6, Abraham said to his servant: Beware that you never bring my son back there. Psalm 83:11: I have chosen to be an abject in the house of my God, rather than to dwell in the tabernacles of sinners. Likewise, 26:4: One thing I have asked of the Lord, this will I seek, that I may dwell in the house of the Lord all the days of my life. They therefore sought this homeland, not the paternal house from which they had gone out. In which it is signified, that those who go out from the vanity of the world ought not to return there in mind. Psalm 44:10: Forget your people and your father's house. Luke 9:62: No one who puts his hand to the plow and looks back is fit for the kingdom of God. Philippians 3:13: Forgetting the things that are behind, stretching myself forth to those that are before. Now it is clear that this confession of theirs, in word and in deed, pertains to faith, because they most firmly believed, even unto death, that very thing which had only been promised to them and not yet delivered. Hence, according to faith, that is, having their faith with them as an inseparable companion, they died. Apocalypse 2:10: Be faithful unto death.

Then, when he says, therefore he is not ashamed, he shows what they merited to receive from their faith, and this was the greatest honor. Now it is reckoned the greatest honor when someone is named after some solemn office or service of a great and excellent lord or prince, as the notary of the Pope, or the chancellor of the king. But it is a greater honor still when that great lord wishes to be named after those who serve him. And so it is with these three, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, whose Lord, the great King above all gods, specially calls himself their God; hence Exodus 3:6: I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob; hence he says, therefore God is not ashamed to be called their God. And a threefold reason can be assigned for this.

The first, because God is known through faith. Now these are recorded as being the first to separate themselves by a special worship from unbelievers; hence Abraham too was the first to receive the seal of faith, Romans 4:18: that he might become the father of a multitude of nations. And therefore they are set before us as an example, as those through whom God was first known, and through whom God was named, as the object of faith. And therefore he willed to be named from them.

The second, according to Augustine in the Gloss, because in these there lies hidden some mystery. For in these we find a likeness of the generation by which God regenerated spiritual sons. Now we see in them a fourfold manner of begetting. The first manner is of free children through free women, as Abraham through Sarah begot Isaac, who through Rebecca begot Jacob. And Jacob begot eight patriarchs through Leah and Rachel. The second manner was of free children through handmaids, as Jacob through Bala and Zelpha begot Dan and Naphtali, Gad and Asher. The third manner was of servants through free women, as Isaac through Rebecca begot Esau, of whom it was said: the elder shall serve the younger. The fourth manner was of servants through a handmaid, as through Hagar Abraham begot Ishmael. In this, then, is designated the diverse manner by which the Lord begets spiritual sons: for sometimes good through good, as Timothy through Paul; sometimes good through evil, and this is the begetting of free children through handmaids; sometimes evil through good, as Simon Magus through Philip. And this is the begetting of servants through free women. But the begetting of the evil through the evil is reckoned in the seed. Hence Galatians 4:30: Cast out the handmaid and her son.

The third reason, which seems more according to the intention of the Apostle, is that it is customary for a king to be named from his principal city, or from his whole country, as the king of Jerusalem, of the Romans, the king of France. And therefore God is properly called the king and God of those who specially belong to that city, the heavenly Jerusalem, of which God is the maker and founder. And because these, in word and deed, showed themselves to belong to that city, therefore he is called their God; hence he says, for he has prepared for them a city, that is, he is the founder of that city, which he had as his own.

Then, when he says, by faith he offered, he sets down another notable example concerning the faith of Abraham, insofar as it regards God, namely that greatest sacrifice of his, when at the command of the Lord he was willing to immolate his only-begotten son, Genesis 22:1ff. And concerning this he shows three things. First, what he did; second, that this pertains to faith, at the place, and his only-begotten; third, what he received from this, at the place, wherefore he received him also in a parable. He says therefore, when Abraham was tried, he offered, that is, was willing to offer, by faith, Isaac, as is clear throughout the whole twelfth chapter of Genesis.

Here there is a twofold question. One, because to kill an innocent is against the law of nature, and thus a sin; therefore in willing to offer him he sinned. I answer. It must be said that he who kills by the command of a superior — if that superior lawfully commands, the other lawfully obeys, and can lawfully carry out his service. But God has authority over death and life. 1 Kings 2:6: The Lord kills and makes alive. But God, in taking away life from someone, even an innocent, does injury to no one. Hence also daily, by divine disposition, many guilty and innocent die. And therefore he could lawfully carry out the command of God.

Likewise a question is raised about this, that he says, when he was tried. For God tries no one, because to try is the act of one who does not know. I answer. It must be said that the Devil tries in order to deceive. 1 Thessalonians 3:5: lest perhaps he who tempts should have tempted you. This is clear in the temptation by which he tempted Christ, Matthew 4:1ff. But man tries in order to know. 3 Kings 10:1, it is said of the queen of Sheba, who came to Solomon to try him with riddles. In this way God does not try, since he knows all things; but he tries, that man may become known to himself, of how much strength and how much frailty he is. Deuteronomy 8:2: that he might try you, and that the things that were in your mind might become known; 2 Chronicles 32:31, concerning Hezekiah being tried, that his heart might be known. Likewise, that others may know the one tried, who from this is set before them as an example, as Abraham and Job. Ecclesiasticus 44:21: Abraham was found faithful in trial.

Then, when he says, and his only-begotten, etc., he shows very subtly that this obedience pertained to faith. For as was said above, Abraham, although a very old man, believed God promising that in Isaac he would be blessed in his seed; he also believed that God was able to raise the dead. When therefore it was commanded him that he should kill him, there was no longer any hope, from Sarah now very aged, of being able to have a son, since Isaac was already a young man. And therefore, since he believed that the command of God must be obeyed, nothing remained but that he should believe that Isaac would be raised up, through whom his seed was to be called. Hence he says, and his only-begotten, namely of Sarah, in whom, that is, in the son born, God was to fulfill the covenant he had promised, as is clear in Genesis 17:19. Or, only-begotten, namely among the free children. Genesis 22:2: Take your only-begotten son Isaac. In whom he had received the promises. To whom also it was said, that is, by reason of whom, etc. Accounting, that is, firmly believing, that God is able to raise him up from the dead. This therefore was the greatest proof of faith, because the article of the resurrection is one of the greater ones.

Then, when he says, wherefore he also received him back in a parable, he shows what he merited through faith: because when nothing now remained but that he himself should be immolated, an Angel called to him, and he immolated a ram caught by its horns in place of his son. Now this was a parable, that is, a figure, of the Christ who was to come. For the ram caught by its horns among the briars is the humanity fastened to the cross, which suffered. Isaac, that is, the divinity, escaped, when Christ truly died and was buried. And thus it is clear that this figure very completely matches the thing figured. He received him therefore, namely Isaac, in a parable, that is, as a figure of Christ who was to be crucified and immolated.

Above, the Apostle set forth the example of the faith of Abraham; here he sets forth the example of the faith of Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. And first, concerning the faith of Isaac. He says, then, that Isaac by faith concerning things to come, that is, a faith which extended itself to future things, blessed Jacob and Esau. Or: he blessed concerning things to come, that is, for things to come, or with a blessing which extended itself to future things. For his words had no efficacy except from the power of God, by which blessing indeed the lesser was set over the greater. This was not with respect to their persons, but with respect to the two peoples who came forth from them. Psalm 107:10: Into Idumea will I stretch out my shoe. For the Idumeans, who came forth from Esau, were made subject to the sons of Israel. By this it was signified that the lesser people, namely of the Gentiles, was, through faith, to go before the greater people, namely of the Jews. Matthew 8:11f: Many shall come from the east and the west, and shall sit down with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven, but the children of the kingdom shall be cast out into the exterior darkness. But this blessing, which concerned the future faith of the Gentiles, was made through faith, whereby it looks to something future.

Then when he says, By faith Jacob, dying, blessed each of the sons, he continues concerning the faith of Jacob, and sets down that which he did in blessing the two sons of Joseph, as is found in Genesis 48:16-20, where it is said that when it had been announced to Joseph that his father was sick, he brought his two sons, whom Jacob blessed with crossed hands, in this preferring Ephraim to Manasseh as to dignity, because from Ephraim came the royal dignity, namely Jeroboam. But this blessing was through faith, because it had been revealed to him that it would be so. This blessing indeed was referred to the people who came forth from them, not to their persons.

Likewise, by faith he adored the top of his rod; this is found in Genesis 47:31, where it is said that he made Joseph swear that he would bury him in the sepulcher of his fathers, and after the oath, as one secure of the promise, he adored at the head of the bed, as our text says; or the top of his rod, as the Septuagint say; or upon the top, as is found in the Greek. And all this can stand together, because he was an old man, and so carried a rod, or he received the scepter of Joseph until he should swear, and before he returned it to him he adored — not the rod itself, nor Joseph, as some have wrongly supposed, but God himself, leaning upon the top, or upon the top of his rod. To this he was moved from consideration of the power of Christ, which the power of Joseph prefigured. For he, as one set as governor over Egypt, carried the scepter, as a sign of the power of Christ. Psalm 2:9: Thou shalt rule them with a rod of iron. Or if he adored the top, the sense is the same, because he adored Christ signified through that rod, just as we too adore the crucifix and the cross, by reason of Christ who suffered upon it. Whence properly we do not adore the cross, but Christ crucified upon it.

Then when he says, By faith Joseph, he continues the example concerning the faith of Joseph, where he sets down two things which are found in the last chapter of Genesis, where he said to his brothers: The Lord will visit you, and he commanded his bones to be carried away from there. Whence his faith was as to two things: first, because he believed that the promise made was to be fulfilled through the return of the sons of Israel into the land of promise; second, because in it he believed that Christ was to be born and to rise again, and many with him, whence he desired to have a part in that resurrection. And this is what he says, that Joseph, dying, by faith, that is, through faith, made mention of the departure of the sons of Israel, and this as to the first; and gave commandment concerning his bones, as to the second.

But why did he not have himself carried away at once, as his father did? I answer. It must be said that he could not do this, because he did not then have as much power as he had at the death of his father. And therefore then he was able to do this, which nevertheless at his own death he was not able to do. Second, because he knew that the sons of Israel would have to endure many afflictions after his death. Therefore, that they might have a sure hope of their liberation and of the return to the land of promise, he willed, for their comfort, that his body should remain with them. Whence Moses too carried it with him, just as each tribe also carried the body of its own father, as Jerome says.

Then when he says, By faith Moses, he continues concerning the fathers who were under the law. For this time began with Moses. Ecclesiasticus 24:33: Moses commanded a law in the precepts of justices. John 1:17: The law was given by Moses. But this time is distinguished into three: namely, before the exodus from Egypt, in the exodus, and after the exodus. Whence he does three things. For first he shows what was done before the exodus; second, what in the exodus, there: By faith he left Egypt; third, what in the land of promise, there: What shall I yet say. Concerning the first he does two things. For first he shows what was done at the birth of Moses; second, what he himself did, there: By faith Moses. Here the history is touched upon which is set down in Exodus 1, that Pharaoh commanded the males to be killed lest they should multiply. Second, it is stated that the parents of Moses, seeing him goodly, hid him for three months, which the Apostle attributes to their faith. For they believed that someone was to be born who would free them from that servitude. Whence from the comeliness of the child they reckoned that some power of God was in him. For they themselves were unlearned and rustic folk, sweating at works of mud and brick. Ecclesiasticus 19:26: A man is known by his look. From which it follows that although faith is of things unseen, yet through certain visible signs we can be led toward it. Mark, last chapter: confirming the word with signs that followed. But that they did this out of faith, not out of carnal affection, is clear, because they did not fear the king's edict. Whence they exposed themselves to personal danger, which they would not have done unless they had believed that something great was to come of the child. Matthew 10:28: Fear not them that kill the body, et cetera.

But on the contrary, they afterward exposed him; therefore it was not on account of faith that they kept him safe. I answer. It must be said that they exposed him not in order that he might be killed, but lest he be snatched from them, whence they placed him in a little basket, committing him to divine providence. For they believed it probable that he would have been killed if he had been found with them.

Then when he says, By faith, having grown great, he shows what Moses himself did through faith; and first, what he did; second, he shows that that deed pertained to faith, there: For he had regard. For he touches upon the history which is found in Exodus 2:9f, where it is said that the daughter of Pharaoh had him nursed by the child's mother, and that she adopted him as a son. But he himself denied that he was her son, not indeed in word, but in deed, because against the will of Pharaoh he slew the Egyptian who had injured a Hebrew. And this is what he says: having grown great, through faith he denied that he was the son of Pharaoh's daughter. But with what disposition he did this, he shows when he adds, choosing rather. In which is shown his wonderful virtue. For there are two things which men most desire, namely pleasure and delight concerning external goods; and the contraries of these they most flee, namely sorrow and affliction, which is opposed to the first, and poverty and abjection, which is opposed to the second. But these two Moses chose, namely, because he preferred sorrow and affliction to the pleasure of temporal sin, which indeed is always joined with sin. Likewise he preferred poverty to riches for the sake of Christ. Proverbs 16:19: It is better to be humbled with the meek, than to divide spoils with the proud. Psalm 83:11: I have chosen to be an abject in the house of God, rather than to dwell in the tabernacles of sinners. As to the first, then, he says, choosing rather to be afflicted with the people of God, namely whom Pharaoh was afflicting, than to have the pleasure of temporal sin, that is, of transitory sin. Which would have been the case if with the Egyptians he had afflicted the sons of Israel. As to the second, namely that he preferred poverty, he says, esteeming the reproach of Christ greater riches, that is, for the faith of Christ; for the faith of the ancients and ours is the same. Or, the reproach of Christ, namely which he endured from his brothers, as it is said: Wilt thou kill me, as thou didst yesterday kill the Egyptian? This reproach was a figure that Christ was to receive reproach from the Jews. Psalm 68:21: My heart hath expected reproach and misery. But greater riches he believed the two aforesaid things to be, than the treasures of the Egyptians. Isaiah 33:6: The riches of salvation are wisdom and knowledge.

Then when he says, For he had regard, he shows that the aforesaid deeds of Moses pertained to faith in Christ. But it must be known that some things are in themselves good and delightful, while others are in themselves sorrowful and evil. But no one chooses evils for their own sake, but for the sake of an end; just as a sick man chooses a bitter potion, and sorrowful things rather than delightful ones, by reason of some greater good which he can obtain through this. And so the saints, on account of the hope of the last end of eternal happiness, choose afflictions and poverty in preference to riches and pleasures, because by these latter they are hindered from attaining the end hoped for. Matthew 5:11: Blessed shall you be when men shall speak evil of you, and shall persecute you, et cetera. And it follows: Be glad and rejoice, for your reward is very great in heaven. Genesis 15:1: I am thy protector, and thy reward exceeding great. And therefore he says that he did this because he had regard, namely with the eyes of faith, unto the reward, which indeed he hoped for from this. Whence faith is the substance of things to be hoped for, the evidence of things that do not appear, as has been said above, et cetera.

1 Above the Apostle set down the faith of Moses as regards what he did in Egypt; here, as regards what he did in the departure from Egypt. And concerning this he does three things. For first he shows what he did in the departure from Egypt; second he shows the manner of the departing, at the words "by faith he celebrated"; third, what was done by faith with the unbelieving people, at the words "by faith Rahab." He says, therefore, that Moses "by faith," that is, through faith, "left Egypt." Now as is found in Ex. XII, 37, first he fled from Egypt, after the Egyptian had been slain; but second he went out when he led forth all the children of Israel together. But the Gloss expounds this of the second departure, because there follows "not fearing the fierceness," that is, the indignation, "of the king." For in the first departure it is read, Ex. II, 14, that he was afraid. Prov. c. XIV, 35: the unprofitable man shall bear the wrath of the king. But in the second he did not fear. Prov. XXVIII, v. 1: the just, like a confident lion, shall be without dread. It can, however, be referred to the first. But did he not fear then? I answer. It must be said that in fear two things are to be considered. One, that it can sometimes be blameworthy, namely when on account of fear one does something that ought not to be done, or leaves undone something that ought to be done. And in this way Moses did not fear, because on account of fear he did not fail to help his brothers. The other is that it can be praiseworthy, namely when, faith being kept safe, one flees from a pressing danger on account of fear. Matth. X, 23: when they persecute you in this city, flee into another. For if someone, his honor being kept safe, could avoid danger and did not avoid it, he would be foolish and would tempt God, which is diabolical. And thus Jesus withdrew from those who wished to stone him, nor at the suggestion of the Devil did he wish to cast himself down: so too Moses, trusting in the divine help, fled on account of fear of the king for a time. And he proves that he did this out of faith, because faith is of things unseen. And "he endured," that is, he awaited the invisible God, and his help, as one seeing. Ps. XXVI, 14: let your heart be strengthened, and wait for the Lord. I Tim. I, 17: now to the king of ages, immortal, invisible, et cetera. For Moses in both departures awaited the help of God; hence in the first he says, Ex. II, 22: the God of my father is my helper. But in the second, Ex. XIV, 14: you shall hold your peace, and the Lord will fight for you. Then, when he says "by faith he celebrated the Passover," he shows what he did as regards the manner of passing over. And first he sets down what was done for the preparation of the crossing; second, as regards the crossing itself, at the words "by faith they crossed"; third, as regards what was done by faith concerning the entrance into the land of promise, at the words "by faith the walls of Jericho." As to the first, he sets down the history, which is found in Ex. XII, where the Lord commanded them, before the departure of the children of Israel, namely on that same night, that a lamb be slain and that with its blood each doorpost and the lintel be smeared, that its flesh be eaten roasted with unleavened bread and wild lettuce, along with many other things that were to be observed, as may be seen there. And this was called the Passover, namely the eating of the lamb, and the shedding of the blood, which two things concurred toward that crossing which they were about to make shortly. Now Pascha is said from paschin in Greek, which in Latin is "passion," or from phase, which in Hebrew is the same as "crossing." In this, moreover, it was figured that Christ would pass out of this world through his passion. Io. XIII, 1: that he should pass out of this world. Likewise, that we, through the merit of his death, pass from earthly things to heavenly things, from Hell to heaven. Eccli. XXIV, 26: pass over to me, all you who desire me. And this indeed was through the power of the blood of Christ. Supra X, 19: having therefore, brothers, confidence in the entrance of the holies by the blood of Christ. Now in that Passover there was a twofold crossing. One, by which the Lord crossed, striking the Egyptians; the other, by which the people crossed. So too, by the blood of Christ, who is the spotless lamb, the doorposts of the faithful ought to be smeared, namely the intellect and the affection. He says, therefore, "by faith," that is, through faith, "he celebrated the Passover," that is, the eating of the lamb, and the shedding of the blood, for smearing the doorposts of the houses. And why did he do this? Namely so that he who was laying waste the firstborn of the Egyptians might not touch them. Ps. LXXVII, 51: he struck every firstborn in the land of Egypt. But it is asked by whose ministry this was done, namely whether of good or of evil angels, because it seems that it was through evil ones. Ps. LXXVII, 49: a sending in by evil angels. I answer. It must be said that it is not unfitting that it be by either. Hence it must be known that the infliction of punishments is sometimes done through good angels. For as Dionysius says in chapter IV on the divine names, to punish evil is not evil, but to do evil is evil. For punishment is a work of justice, as is clear of the angel who destroyed the camps of the Assyrians, Is. XXXVII, 36, who is believed to have been a good angel. Hence such punishment is done indifferently through the good and the evil; but differently by the good and by the evil, because the good does not punish except by exercising the divine justice upon the evil. And in the Scriptures the working both of the Devil and of the good angel, of the sort that this is, is attributed to God. But the evil one, even though he serves the divine justice, nevertheless does not do this out of the intention of justice, but out of the perversity of his own will he afflicts both the good and the evil, and more willingly the good, if he be permitted, as is clear concerning Job. This angel, who said to Moses: the Lord will pass through, striking Egypt, was a good angel, since he himself sometimes speaks in his own person. But sometimes an evil spirit ministers under a good angel; hence his ministry was employed there, although out of the intention of his own evil and perverse will, working voluntarily toward slaughter. And therefore it says "wrath, and a sending in of tribulations, through evil angels." The evil angel, therefore, did not touch those who were marked with the blood, out of the terror and fear of God, inasmuch as he was not permitted. But the good angel, for his part, was struck with awe thereby, marveling at the power of God. Then, when he says "by faith they crossed," etc., he shows what he did in the crossing itself. And first he shows this; second he shows that this pertained to faith, at the words "which having assayed." He says, therefore, that "by faith," that is, through faith, "they crossed the Red Sea as through dry land." For two things were done there by faith. One, which man did, namely that they committed themselves to the crossing, which was only through faith. The other was on the part of God, namely that the waters were for them as a wall. This too was through faith. For the working of miracles is attributed to faith. Matth. XVII, 19: if you have faith as a grain of mustard seed, you shall say to this mountain: pass from here, and it shall pass. Therefore this was done by faith, that is, faith merited this. And this is found in Ex. XIV and XV. Then he shows that this pertains to faith, because the Egyptians, having assayed this, that is, wishing to make trial of it, were devoured, namely because they did not have faith. Ex. XV, 12: you stretched forth your hand, and the earth devoured them. Then, when he says "by faith the walls of Jericho fell down, by the circuit of seven days." He treats of what was done by faith at the entrance into the land of promise. Of this it is found in Iosue VI, where it is said that, at the command of the Lord, the priests for seven days went around the first city beyond the Jordan, namely Jericho, with the ark of the covenant, and on the seventh day, at the seventh circuit, its walls fell down: this was something on the part of man, namely that they went around at the command of the Lord, believing that the command of the Lord must be fulfilled. But something was on the part of God, namely that at their circuit the walls thus fell down. Morally Jericho is interpreted as moon, or defect, and signifies this world. Its walls are the impediments by which someone is held back in the world. By the trumpets with which the Levites and the priests sounded, the voice of the preachers is signified. By the circuit of seven days the whole course of the present time is designated, which is completed by seven days. By which it is given to be understood that all the impediments of the world fall at the continual voice of preaching. II Cor. X, 4 s.: the weapons of our warfare are not carnal, but mighty to God for the destruction of fortifications, destroying counsels, and every height that exalts itself against the knowledge of God. Then, when he says "by faith Rahab the harlot," he shows what was done by faith by someone of the unbelieving people, namely by Rahab, concerning whom see Iosue V and VI. For when Iosue had sent spies to explore Jericho, they escaped by the help of this woman, who is called a harlot, that is, an idolatress. Or, according to the letter, she was a harlot, to whom they entered not in order to sin, but in order to hide. For the houses of such women stand open, especially at night. These men, too, had come by night. Her house, moreover, was joined to the wall. Now harlots receive indifferently, without exception, and therefore they could better be hidden with her. She, therefore, was freed by faith. Hence it says "Rahab the harlot, by faith," that is, through faith, "receiving the spies with peace, perished not with the unbelievers," who perished bodily, because the spies had sworn to her that they would free her, and all her father's house, which they also did. But as to why they turned aside to her rather than another, it can be said that it was so that she herself might the less be able to be blamed, receiving all indifferently. Nor was it fitting that their salvation should become, to the one who saved them, an occasion of death. But in the fact that she was freed by that very reception of them it is designated that those who receive the preachers of the Gospel are freed from eternal death. Matth. c. X, 41: he who receives a prophet in the name of a prophet shall receive the reward of a prophet.

Above the Apostle set down those things which were done by the fathers through faith before the entrance, and in the very entrance into the land of promise; here he proceeds to narrate examples of those who were in the land of promise itself; and because these are many, therefore briefly, having first set down the names of the fathers, he sets down in general their principal deeds, giving the reason for that brevity. And concerning this he does three things. First, he sets down the names of the fathers and the reason why he wishes to pass briefly over their deeds; second, he shows what they did through faith, at the words who through faith conquered; third, what they received through faith, at the words obtained.

He says therefore, What more shall I say? As if he were saying: I have come as far as the time of the entrance into the land of promise, at which point few things had been said in comparison with what remains to be said. For there remain so many things to be said that they could not be explained. For time will fail me as I tell of them, that is, if I should wish to tell of them, the time of an epistolary narration, which ought to be concise, will not suffice me. Whence Jerome, to Paulinus, chapter 6: for indeed the narrowness of a letter ... further, chapter: for indeed the narrowness of a letter did not allow to wander further. Or understand time as the time of life. In this manner he speaks in John, the last chapter: there are indeed many other things which Jesus did, etc., where the Gloss says that he speaks hyperbolically, and yet it is not false, but is a figurative manner of speaking. Ps. XXXIX, 5, where we have, I have declared and I have spoken, they are multiplied above number, the text of Jerome says: if I should wish to declare them, they are more than can be told.

It must be known, however, that some of these did certain evil things, and certain good things, wherefore they are numbered here only as regards the good things which they did, or received. Nevertheless it is probable that they were in the end holy, since the Apostle names them in the catalogue of the saints.

First, therefore, he sets down Gideon, concerning whom Judges c. VI, 11 and following; whom he places first, both because he did nothing evil, and because he did a very notable deed, and perhaps also because he received the greatest sign of the incarnation of Christ in the fleece and the dew, concerning which it is said in Ps. LXXI, 6: he shall come down as rain upon the fleece. Second, he sets down Barak, concerning whom Judges IV, who was not as notable as Gideon, to whom moreover that victory was not reckoned, but rather to a woman, and therefore perhaps he places him after. Third, he sets down Samson, concerning whom Judges XIII. Concerning whom it especially seems that he ought not to be numbered here, because in his death he sinned by killing himself. Augustine, however, in Book I of the City of God, says that he is excused, because it is believed that he did this by the command of God, a sign of which is that he could not have overturned so great a house by his own strength, but by the strength of God, which does not aid toward evil. Fourth, he sets down Jephthah, concerning whom Judges XI. This one he places after Samson, because he did not do as many notable deeds as that one.

But there is a doubt concerning Jephthah, whether in sacrificing his daughter by reason of his vow he sinned; it seems that he did not, because it is said there that the spirit of the Lord rushed upon Jephthah, and after this there follows: his vow and the victory. On the contrary: Jerome says that he was indiscreet in vowing, and impious in fulfilling it. I respond: it must be said that there was something there from the Holy Spirit, namely the movement to vow in general, that is, that he would sacrifice whatever suitable-for-sacrifice thing should come to meet him; but something else was from his own spirit, namely that he sacrificed what he ought not to have, and in this he sinned, but afterward he repented. Likewise Gideon sinned in making an ephod and in tempting God in asking for a sign in the fleece, and afterward he repented, just as David also did, concerning whom he adds, saying and David and Samuel, concerning whom, namely, it is treated in the books of Kings. And the other prophets, concerning whom, if I wished to speak, time would fail.

But then the question is whether all these, who have been mentioned, were prophets. I respond: it must be said that the Holy Spirit moves the mind of the prophet, just as a principal agent moves its instrument. Now the Holy Spirit can move toward three things, namely toward knowing, toward speaking, and toward doing. And each of these in a twofold way. As to knowing: sometimes with an understanding of what is seen, as was the case with Isaiah and the other prophets, whence they were also called seers. I Reg. IX, 9: he who today is called a prophet, was formerly called a seer. But sometimes without knowledge of what is seen, as is clear in the dream of Pharaoh, and in the vision of Belshazzar. As to speaking, he also moves in a twofold way: sometimes so as to know that of which he speaks, as is clear in the case of David; but sometimes he does not know, as Caiaphas, and perhaps Balaam. Likewise also sometimes he moves toward doing, and he knows what he does, as Jeremiah, who hid his waistband by the Euphrates. But sometimes he does not know, as Augustine says upon John, concerning the soldiers, who divided among themselves the garments of Christ, yet did not know the mystery to which that division was ordered. This, then, belongs to the nature of a prophet, that he know that which he sees, or says, or does. But when he does not know, he is not truly a prophet, but only by participation. And thus John says that Caiaphas prophesied, because he had something of prophecy. But this movement of the Holy Spirit is called instinct, according to Augustine.

Then, when he says who through faith conquered kingdoms, he shows what the saints, of whom he has spoken, did; and first he shows this in general; second he descends to certain particulars, at the words stopped the mouths of lions. First, however, he sets down the merit of their deed; second, the reward, at the words obtained.

As to the first, it must be known that among all the exterior acts of the moral virtues, the acts of fortitude and of justice seem to be the chief, because they pertain most of all to the common good. For by fortitude the commonwealth is defended from the enemy, but by justice it is preserved. Whence the Apostle commends the holy fathers by both acts. By the act of fortitude indeed, when he says that these through faith conquered kingdoms, that is, kings, or even their kingdoms, as David and Joshua. Nonetheless, the saints spiritually through faith conquered kingdoms, namely the kingdom of the Devil, concerning which Job XLI, 25: he is king over all the children of pride. Also the kingdom of the flesh: Rom. VI, 12: let not sin therefore reign in your mortal body. Also the kingdom of the world: John XVIII, 36: my kingdom is not of this world. But these conquer through faith: I John c. V, 4: this is the victory which overcomes the world, our faith. For no one can despise present things, except on account of the hope of future goods. For it is principally by contempt that the world is conquered. And therefore, because faith shows us invisible things, on account of which the world is despised, therefore our faith conquers the world.

But by the act of justice he commends them, when he says they wrought justice. Now sometimes justice is a general virtue, namely when one obeys the divine law. Ps. X, 7: the Lord is just, and has loved just deeds. And II Mach. IX, 12: it is just that one be subject to God. I John III, 7: he who does justice is just. But sometimes it is a special virtue, and this consists in human actions and dealings, namely when one renders to each what is his own. But the saints had both kinds of justice. Is. LIV, 17: this is the inheritance of the servants of God, and justice with me, says the Lord. Ecclesiasticus I, 33: desiring wisdom, keep justice, namely by obeying the commandments. Likewise by exercising it among the people: Ps. CXVIII, 121: I have done judgment and justice, etc.

Then when he says obtained, he shows what they received, because they obtained the promises. For the promise of God is efficacious, because God never fails in his promises. Rom. IV, 21: whatsoever God has promised, he is able also to do. Ps. CXLIV, 13: God is faithful in all his words. But on the contrary: above, in the same place: according to faith they died, not having received the promises. I respond: it must be said that what is said here can be understood in three ways. In one way, that the promise of God is that special one by which he promises the saints eternal life. And this one no one received before the coming of Christ. Rom. XV, 8: to confirm the promises of the fathers. Second, for the promise of having the land of promise. And this the first three fathers, namely Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, did not receive, but only the later fathers, such as Joshua and the other saints. Third, for a particular promise, namely of that which was promised to each one, as to David the kingdom, and to Hezekiah health. And these promises they obtained.

Then when he says stopped the mouths of lions, he sets down certain particular benefits bestowed upon some. And first those which pertain to the removal of evil; second those which pertain to the accomplishing of good, at the words became valiant in battle. But the evil harmful to man is twofold: one exterior, the other interior. The second he sets down, at the words recovered. But the exterior evil is twofold, because it is inflicted either by an irrational creature, or by a rational one. The second he sets down, at the words put to flight. From the irrational creature it is twofold, namely either from an inanimate or from an animate one. The harm inflicted by the inanimate he touches upon, at the words quenched the violence. As to the animate, then, he says stopped the mouths of lions.

But he speaks in the plural, although there was only one, namely Daniel; just as it is also said in Matt. II, 20: for they are dead who sought the life of the child: yet at that time no one sought to kill Christ except Herod alone. The reason for this is that he speaks of all the saints in common, as of one college of saints, and what one does is imputed to the others, and even to all, which comes about through the power of the Holy Spirit, which is common to all. Whence also in this context he speaks as though of many. It can also be said that this was fulfilled in David, who, as he himself says in I Reg. XVII, v. 36, killed a lion and a bear. And Samson too, Judges XIV, 6. But by the lion, spiritually, is understood the Devil. I Pet. V, 8: your adversary the Devil, etc. He, therefore, who represses his assaults, stops the mouths of lions. Job c. XXIX, 17: I broke the jaws of the wicked man, and out of his teeth I took away the prey.

He removes harm from an inanimate thing when he says quenched the violence of fire, as is found concerning the three children in Dan. III, v. 24 and following. Likewise, at the prayers of Moses and Aaron the fire was quenched which, sent from the Lord, was devouring the murmuring people, as is clear in Num. XI, XVI. This fire is the interior movement of concupiscence or of anger. He, therefore, who restrains that movement, quenches the violence of fire. Ps. LVII, 8: fire has fallen upon them, and they have not seen the sun.

He touches upon the removal of harm inflicted through a rational creature when he says put to flight the edge of the sword, that is, the battle-line of the enemy with sharp swords. But this was done most frequently by them, as is clear concerning Joshua, Gideon, and David. But by the sword is understood evil persuasion. Ps. LVI, 4: their tongue is a sharp sword. He puts these swords to flight who makes an evil tongue be silent. Ecclesiasticus XXVIII, 28: hedge in your ears with thorns, and do not listen to a wicked tongue. Prov. XXV, 23: the north wind scatters the rains, and a sad face a backbiting tongue.

The interior harm is infirmity, concerning the removal of which he says recovered from infirmity, as appears especially concerning Ezekiel, IV Reg. XX, 5 and following, and Is. XXXVIII, v. 1 and following. But this infirmity is sin. Ps. VI, 2: have mercy on me, Lord, for I am weak. He, therefore, recovers, who rises up.

Then when he says became valiant, he sets down the benefits as regards the attainment of good, and he sets down three things. The first pertains to this, that they acted valiantly. Whence he says became valiant in battle, as is clear concerning Joshua. Ecclesiasticus XLVI, 1: valiant in war was Jesus the son of Nun, the successor of Moses among the prophets, etc. Thus it is clear also concerning many others. The second pertains to the effect of that fortitude. Whence he says turned to flight the camps of foreigners, as is clear concerning the Maccabees, and concerning David. Ps. XXVI, 3: if camps should stand together against me, my heart shall not fear. But the third pertains to the effect of the divine fortitude. Whence he says women received their dead by resurrection, that is, through resurrection, which some, understanding it badly, explained as their dead, that is, their husbands raised again; asserting by this that marriage is not dissolved by death, which is false, even if he should rise again. And this is against the Apostle's own word, Rom. VII, 3: if her husband shall have fallen asleep, she is freed from the law of her husband.

Whence it must be known that there is also a certain difference in the effects of the sacraments. For certain sacraments imprint a character, such as Baptism, confirmation, and orders. And because the character remains perpetually in the soul, therefore one baptized, or confirmed, or ordained, if he should be raised again, ought not to have any of those sacraments repeated. But other sacraments do not imprint a character, such as penance, extreme unction, and so of the others, because they are against something repeatable, and therefore they can be repeated. Now among these is marriage, and therefore he does not say the living, but the dead, because mothers received their dead sons by resurrection, whose resurrection was a certain foretoken of the future resurrection begun through Christ. Concerning the resurrection of these, or rather their being raised up, it is found in III Reg. XVII, and IV Reg. IV. Yet these who were thus raised up died again, but Christ, rising from the dead, dies no more, Rom. VI, 9. Whence his resurrection was the beginning of the future resurrection. I Cor. XV, 20: Christ has risen from the dead, the firstfruits of them that sleep.

But just as these temporal benefits were given to them as to the weak, for their sustenance through the merit of their faith, so they were a figure of the future goods, which will be given to us from the merit of faith. Mark: and these signs shall follow them that believe, etc. Which Gregory explains of spiritual goods.

Above the Apostle set out examples of the holy fathers of old, who did many great things because of faith; here he sets out examples of those who suffered many things because of faith. And concerning this he does two things. First he shows how they suffered because of faith; second he shows how the promises made to them were delayed, and why, at and all these, by testimony. Concerning the first he does two things, for first he sets out the evils inflicted upon them by others; second, the evils undertaken by their own will, at they went about in melotes. Now the evils inflicted upon them by others were of two kinds, for some were in life, but some were in death. And he sets out these two, at they were stoned. But in life the evils were inflicted upon them in three ways: some as to bodily affliction, some as to mockery, some as to confinement.

As to the first he says but others, etc., as if to say: it has thus been said that certain ones received many good things because of faith, either in the removal of evil, or in the accomplishing of temporal good, in which the Old Testament is figured, which conferred temporal goods. But others suffered many things because of faith, of whom some were stretched upon the rack, as is said in 1 Maccabees 2:1, and 2 Maccabees 6:10 concerning the boys hung at the necks of their mothers, and 7:1 concerning the seven brothers. In these saints the New Testament was first figured. Hence he says not accepting redemption, that is, deliverance. For he who is subjected to punishment is in a certain way a slave of the punishment. And therefore to be freed from punishment is called redemption. Psalm 77:42: on the day when he redeemed them from the hand of him that troubled them. But why they were not freed, he shows: namely, that this was not because God did not have providence over them, but so that they might find eternal life, which is better than deliverance from any present punishment, or any resurrection to the present life; and therefore he says that they might find a better resurrection. Job 19:25: on the last day I shall rise from the earth. Isaiah 26:19: your dead shall live, my slain shall rise again. Or he says better, because from this very fact, that they suffered greater things for Christ, they will receive a greater reward. For as it is said in 1 Corinthians 15:41: star differs from star in brightness, so shall be the resurrection of the dead. For those who were greater in merit will be greater in reward. And therefore the apostles are preferred to the martyrs, and the martyrs to all others. For those greater in merit are greater in reward. But the merits of the martyrs are foremost. John 15:13: greater love than this no one has, etc. Yet not every martyr is greater than every confessor, but some martyr can be greater than some confessor; and conversely, some confessor greater than some martyr, though not universally. For one can be compared to another either as to the kind of work, or as to the degree of charity. But no act, considered in itself, is as meritorious as that by which someone dies for Christ, because he gives that which he holds most dear, namely his own life. Matthew 5:10: blessed are they who suffer persecution for justice's sake. But if the root of all merit is considered, which is charity, 1 Corinthians 13:2, then a work proceeding from greater charity is more meritorious. And thus a simple confessor can be of greater merit before God. But the Apostle speaks with respect to the kind of work, saying that they might find a better, that is, a greater and more glorious, resurrection. Hence the word better imports a comparison of the state of the present life to the future resurrection, or a comparison of the glory of the resurrection of one who rises again to the glory of another.

Then when he says others mockeries, he sets out the evils inflicted upon them in life as to the mockery done in words, saying that others experienced mockeries, as is clear concerning Samson, Tobit and Job, and Isaiah. Isaiah 50:6: I have not turned away my face from them that rebuked me, and spat upon me. Jeremiah also says, 20:8: the word of the Lord is made to me a reproach and a derision. But as to deeds, he says that they experienced blows, as is clear concerning Micaiah, of whom it is said in 3 Kings, last chapter, that Zedekiah struck him on the cheek. In all these things the sufferings of the New Testament were foreshown. 1 Corinthians 4:9: we are made a spectacle to the world, and to angels, and to men. Then when he says moreover, chains too, he sets out the evils inflicted upon the saints as to confinement. Hence he says moreover, chains too, as with Jeremiah, of whom it is said in Jeremiah 20:2 that he was put in the stocks. Not only chains, but also prisons, as in Jeremiah 37:14 and 38:6, and Micaiah, 3 Kings, last chapter.

Consequently he shows the evils inflicted as to death when he says they were stoned. Which kind of death was then common among all the Jews. Matthew 23:37: Jerusalem, Jerusalem, you who kill the prophets, and stone those who are sent to you. Thus Naboth was stoned, 3 Kings 21:13, and Jeremiah, of whom it is read that the Jews stoned him in Egypt with stones which he had hidden under the brick wall of the house of Pharaoh himself. And although Epiphanius says that he was dragged, nevertheless it is commonly held that he was stoned. Zechariah also, the son of Jehoiada, was stoned, as is read in 2 Paralipomenon 24:21. The second kind of death, unusual and cruel, he sets out when he says they were cut asunder. He says this because of Isaiah, whom Manasseh had cut asunder with a wooden saw. And he speaks in the plural, although there was only one, according to the custom of Scripture, for the reason stated above. The third kind, when he says they were tempted, namely, to consent. He says this because of Mattathias and his sons, 1 Maccabees 2:15, and because of Eleazar, 2 Maccabees 6:43, and because of the story of the seven brothers, 2 Maccabees 7. And at last they killed them: Lamentations 4:9: it was better for them that were slain by the sword than for them that died by hunger. But especially Uriah was killed by David, 2 Kings 11:15, and Josiah, 4 Kings 23:29.

Then when he says they went about in melotes, he sets out the evils voluntarily undertaken. And these are reduced to three: to outward dress, to the condition of the person, at destitute, and to the place of dwelling, at in deserts. As to dress, then, he says they went about in melotes, and in the skins of goats. A melote is a garment made from the hair of camels, as some say; or better, that the badger has a shaggy hide, from which a garment is made, which is called a melote. The skin of a goat, besides being shaggy, is also cheap. And these things are said of Elijah, 4 Kings 1:8, that he was a hairy man, and girt about the loins with a leather belt. And concerning such garments Augustine says, in the book On the Sermon of the Lord, that there can be an evil intention in such a garment, if someone uses it for vainglory, but a good one, if for contempt of the world and the mortification of the flesh. But especially those who profess the state of penance ought to show the signs of their profession. And therefore it is lawful for them to use such garments, though not for display, and thus the prophets used them. But as to the condition of the person he says destitute, because they lacked riches, in which they prefigured the state of perfection of the New Testament, of which it is said, Matthew 19:21: if you wish to be perfect, go and sell all that you possess. And this was especially so of Elijah, who was fed by ravens, and by a widow woman. 3 Kings 17:6. Psalm 87:16: I am poor and in labors. The same, 69:6: I am needy and poor. Likewise in distress, as is clear of Elijah, who fled from the face of Jezebel, and of David, who fled from the face of Absalom. Likewise afflicted with bodily labor, as with Elijah, who, weary, slept under a juniper tree, 3 Kings 19:4. And he adds, of whom the world was not worthy. As Dionysius says in his letter to John the Evangelist, the wicked sometimes, through the things they do, show signs of their own damnation; hence he says that by the fact that the wicked separated the blessed John from themselves, God showed that they were unworthy of his company. And therefore the Apostle says that the world was not worthy of them, as if to say: because worldly men were not worthy of the company of the just. John 15:19: I have chosen you out of the world, therefore the world hates you. Then when he says in deserts, he shows this as to place, because they did not have their own dwelling, but wandered in deserts, and in mountains, and in dens, and in caves of the earth, which are places suited to contemplation and penance. Now that is called a den which is made by art, but a cave, which is from nature or from some accident, as from the erosion of waters. These things are clear concerning David, 1 Kings 22:1 and 23:14 ff., and concerning Elijah, 3 Kings 19:9.

Then when he says and all these, he shows that the promises were delayed for them. And lest it be thought that this was because of a defect of merit, therefore, secondly, he assigns the reason for that delay, at God for us. He says, therefore, that all these, by the testimony of faith, were found approved, that is, through faith they have testimony that they are approved, that is, approved by God, 2 Corinthians 10:18: for it is not he who commends himself that is approved, but he whom God commends. Wisdom 3:6: as gold in the furnace he has proved them. And yet they did not receive the promise, namely of glory, or the promised life, until Christ. Psalm 88:39: you have put off Christ. For they received temporal things, but not spiritual ones. Above, in the same place: they died not having received the promises.

Then when he says God for us, he shows the reason for the delay, from which some have taken a cause, or occasion of error, who say that no one will enter Paradise until the last consummation, which will be through the final resurrection. But this is against the Apostle, 2 Corinthians 5:1: we know that if our earthly house of this habitation be dissolved, that we have a building from God, a house not made by hands, but eternal in the heavens. This consummation, then, of which the Apostle speaks, can be referred to the essential reward, namely to beatitude, which is had through Christ, Micah 2:13: he has gone up opening the way before them — a beatitude which the saints of the Old Testament did not have. Or it can be referred to the robe of the body, which will not be given universally until after the universal resurrection, although perhaps some already have it by special privilege. They are not, therefore, consummated without us, but are perfected with a twofold robe, so that, as the Glossa says, in the common joy of all, the joy of each may become greater. Hence in this God has provided for us. And therefore he says God foreseeing something better for us. Psalm 132:1: behold how good and how pleasant it is for brothers to dwell together in unity. For a man rejoices more when many rejoice with him. The Glossa: if these kept the faith, who waited so long, much more should we keep it, who receive it at once. Luke 23:43: today you shall be with me in Paradise.