Commentary on Romans (Super Epistolam B. Pauli ad Romanos Lectura)

After the Apostle showed the necessity of the virtues and the origin of grace, here he teaches the use of grace, which pertains to moral instruction. And concerning this he does two things. First he sets down moral teaching in general; second he descends specially to certain particulars pertaining to those to whom he writes, around the middle of chapter XV, where he says, but I myself am persuaded, and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he teaches the use of grace as to this, that man be made perfect; second as to this, that the perfect man should bear with the imperfect one, in chapter XIV, where he says, now him who is weak, and so on. Concerning the first he does three things. First he leads on to perfection of life as to the holiness which man keeps toward God; second as to the justice which one shows to one's neighbor, in chapter XIII, where he says, let every soul, etc.; third as to the purity which man preserves in himself, near the end of chapter XIII, where he says, and knowing this, and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he admonishes that man show himself holy to God; second he teaches how one ought to use the gifts of God's grace, by which one is sanctified, where he says, for I say, through the grace, and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he teaches how one ought to show oneself to God as to the body; second as to the soul, where he says, and be not conformed, and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he induces observance of the things that are taught: and this in two ways. In one way indeed on his own part, when he says, I beseech you therefore, brethren, as if he were to say: it has been said that the judgments of God are incomprehensible, and his ways unsearchable, and therefore I beseech you, brethren, namely that you observe the things that shall be said. Now he makes use of beseeching for three reasons. First indeed to show his humility. Proverbs XVIII, 23: the poor man speaketh with supplications, namely one who does not trust in his own abundance, and therefore tries to lead men to the good not from what is his own, but from what is God's. For to beseech (obsecrare) is to call to witness by sacred things (ob sacra contestari). Second, that he might move them more by love in asking, than by fear, in commanding with authority. Whence it is said to Philemon 8f.: having much confidence in Christ Jesus to command thee that which is to the purpose, for charity's sake I rather beseech. Galatians, last chapter: you who are spiritual, instruct such a one in the spirit of gentleness. Third, on account of the reverence due to the Romans, to whom he was writing. I Timothy V, 1: rebuke not an elder, but beseech him as a father. In another way he leads them on on God's part, when he says, by the mercy of God, namely by which you have been saved. Titus II, 5: according to his mercy he saved us. And therefore from consideration of the divine mercy we ought to do what we are admonished to do. Matthew XVIII, 33: shouldst not thou also have had compassion on thy fellow servant, even as I had compassion on thee? Or it can be said, by the mercy of God, that is, by the authority of the apostolate mercifully entrusted to me. I Corinthians VII, 25: I have obtained mercy from the Lord, to be faithful. Second he sets down the admonition, when he says, that you present your bodies, and so on. Concerning which it must be known that, as Augustine says in Book X of the City of God, the visible sacrifice, which is offered outwardly to God, is a sign of the invisible sacrifice, by which one presents oneself and one's own things in obedience to God. Now man has a threefold good. First indeed the good of the soul, which he presents to God through the humility of devotion and contrition, according to that word of Psalm 50, 19: a sacrifice to God is an afflicted spirit. Second, man has exterior goods, which he presents to God through the giving of alms. Whence it is said in Hebrews, last chapter: do not forget to do good and to share, for by such sacrifices God is won over. Third, man has the good of his own body: and as to this he says, that you present, namely to God, your bodies, as a certain spiritual sacrificial victim. Now an animal immolated to God used to be called a "hostia" (sacrificial victim), either because it was offered for victory over enemies (hostes), or for security from enemies, or because it was immolated at the door (ostium) of the tabernacle. Now man presents his body to God as a sacrificial victim in three ways. In one way indeed, when someone exposes his body to suffering and death for God's sake, as is said of Christ, Ephesians V, 2: he delivered himself up for us, an oblation and a sacrifice to God. And the Apostle says of himself, Philippians II, 17: if I be sacrificed upon the sacrifice and service of your faith, I rejoice. Second, by this, that man macerates his body with fastings and watchings in order to serve God, according to that word of I Corinthians IX, 27: I chastise my body, and bring it into subjection. Third, by this, that man presents his body for carrying out works of justice and of divine worship. Above, VI, 19: present your members to serve justice, unto sanctification. Now it must be considered that the sacrificial victim which was immolated to God had four properties. For first, the offering itself had to be whole and uncorrupted. Whence it is said, Malachi I, v. 14: cursed is the deceitful man, who hath in his flock a male, and making a vow, offereth in sacrifice that which is feeble to the Lord. And on account of this he says, living, namely that the sacrificial victim of our body which we offer to God should be living through faith formed by charity. Galatians II, 20: that which I now live in the flesh, I live in the faith of the Son of God. Now it must be noted that the natural sacrificial victim which had previously been alive, used to be killed, in order to be immolated, to show that death still reigned in man while sin reigned, as was said above at V, 12ff. But this spiritual sacrificial victim always lives and progresses in life, according to that word of John X, 10: I am come that they may have life, and have it more abundantly, because sin has now been taken away through Christ: unless we should say that the sacrificial victim of our body indeed lives to God through the justice of faith, but is put to death as to the concupiscences of the flesh. Colossians III, 5: mortify your members which are upon the earth. Second, the sacrificial victim offered to God was sanctified in the very immolation. Whence it is said, Leviticus XXII, 3: any man of your race, that approacheth to those things that are consecrated, and which the children of Israel have offered to the Lord, in whom there is uncleanness, shall perish before the Lord. And therefore he adds, holy, namely through the devotion by which our body is bound over to the service of God. Leviticus XX, 7: be ye sanctified and be ye holy, for I am the Lord your God, who is holy. Now holiness is properly spoken of with respect to God, inasmuch namely as man keeps those things that are just, as regards God. Third, as to the very consumption of the sacrifice, it was called a sacrifice sweet and acceptable to the Lord, according to that word of Leviticus I, v. 9: the priest shall burn all the things offered upon the altar for a holocaust, and for a most sweet odor to the Lord. Whence here he says, pleasing to God, namely through rectitude of intention. Psalm 55, 13: that I may please in the sight of God, in the light of the living. Fourth, in the very preparation of the sacrifice salt was added. Whence Leviticus II, 13: whatsoever sacrifice thou offerest, thou shalt season it with salt. And Mark IX, 48 it is said: every victim shall be salted with salt. Now salt signifies the discernment of wisdom. Whence it is said, Colossians, last chapter: walk with wisdom towards them that are without, let your speech be always in grace seasoned with salt. Whence also here follows, your reasonable service, namely that with discernment you present your bodies to God as a sacrificial victim, whether through martyrdom or through abstinence or through whatever work of justice. I Corinthians XIV, 40: let all things be done decently, and according to order among you. And Psalm 98, 4: the king's honor loveth judgment. The just man is related differently to interior acts, by which he does service to God, than to exterior ones. For the good of man and his justice consists principally in interior acts, namely those by which man believes, hopes, and loves. Whence it is said, Luke XVII, 21: the kingdom of God is within you. But it does not consist principally in exterior acts. Below, XIV, v. 17: the kingdom of God is not meat and drink. Whence the interior acts are related after the manner of an end, which is sought for its own sake: but the exterior acts, by which bodies are presented to God, are related as those things which are for the end. Now in that which is sought as an end no measure is applied, but the greater it is, the better it is. But in that which is sought for the sake of an end, a measure is applied according to proportion to the end, just as a physician produces health as much as he can, but he does not give medicine as much as he can, but as much as he sees to be expedient for attaining health. And likewise man ought to apply no measure in faith, and hope, and in charity, but the more he believes, hopes, and loves, the better it is; on account of which it is said, Deuteronomy IV, 5: thou shalt love the Lord thy God, and so on. But in exterior acts a measure of discernment must be applied by comparison to charity. Whence Jerome says: does not a rational man lose his dignity, who prefers fasting or vigils to soundness of sense, so that on account of the chanting of psalms and offices, he incurs a mark of madness or of sadness? Then when he says, and be not conformed, etc., he shows how man ought to present himself to God as to the soul. And first he forbids conformity to the world, when he says, and be not conformed to this world, that is, to the things which pass away in time. For the present age (saeculum) is a certain measure of the things that pass away in time. Now man is conformed to temporal things through affection, by clinging to them with love. Hosea IX, v. 10: they became abominable, as those things which they loved. James I, 27: religion clean and undefiled before God and the Father is this: to keep oneself unspotted from this world. He is also conformed to this world who imitates the life of those who live worldly lives. Ephesians IV, 17: I testify in the Lord, that henceforward you walk not as also the Gentiles walk. Second he commands an interior reformation of the mind, when he says, but be reformed in the newness of your understanding. Now the "sense" (sensus) of man is here called reason, according as through it man judges concerning things to be done. Now man had this sense whole and vigorous in his creation, whence it is said, Ecclesiasticus XVII, 6: understanding filled their hearts, and showed them good and evil. But through sin this sense has been corrupted, and, as it were, made old, Baruch III, 11: thou art grown old in a strange land, and consequently it has lost its beauty and comeliness. Lamentations I, 6: from the daughter of Sion all her beauty is departed. The Apostle therefore admonishes that we be reformed, that is, that we take up again the form and comeliness of mind, which our mind had, which indeed comes about through the grace of the Holy Spirit, in participating in which man ought to have zeal, namely in such a way that those who have not yet received it may receive it, and those who have received it may progress in it. Ephesians IV, 23: be renewed in the spirit of your mind. Psalm 102, 5: thy youth shall be renewed like the eagle's. Or otherwise, be renewed, namely in exterior acts, in the newness of your understanding, that is, according to the newness of grace, which you have received in your mind. Third he assigns the reason for the aforesaid admonition, when he says, that you may prove what is the will. Concerning which it must be considered that, just as a man who has a corrupted taste does not have a right judgment concerning flavors, but sometimes abominates the things that are sweet, and desires the things that are abominable, whereas he who has a sound taste has a right judgment concerning flavors; so the man who has a corrupted affection, as it were conformed to worldly things, does not have a right judgment concerning the good; but he who has a right and sound affection, his sense renewed through grace, has a right judgment concerning the good. Therefore he said: be not conformed to this world, but be reformed in the newness of your understanding, that you may prove, that is, that you may know by experience — Psalm 33, 9: taste and see that the Lord is sweet —, what is the will of God, by which namely he wills you to be saved — I Thessalonians IV, 3: this is the will of God, your sanctification —, good, that is, he wills that we will the honest good, and to this he leads us by his precepts — Micah VI, 8: I will show thee, O man, what is good, and what the Lord requireth of thee —, and well-pleasing, inasmuch namely as, to one well-disposed, that which God wills us to will is delightful. Psalm 18, v. 9: the justices of the Lord are right, rejoicing hearts. And not only useful for attaining the end, but also perfect, as it were joining us to the end. Matthew V, 48: be ye perfect, as also your heavenly Father is perfect. Genesis XVII, 1: walk before me, and be perfect. Those, therefore, who are not conformed to this world, but are reformed in the newness of their sense, experience the will of God to be such. But those who remain in oldness, conformed to the world, judge the will of God not to be good, but heavy and useless. Ecclesiasticus VI, 21: how exceeding harsh is wisdom to unlearned men. Then, when he says, for I say, through the grace, etc., he teaches how man ought to use the gifts of God. And first he teaches this as to the gifts which are not common to all, such as the graces freely given (gratiae gratis datae); second, as to the gift of charity, which is common to all, where he says, let love be without dissimulation, and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he teaches in general how man ought to use the graces freely given; second he carries this out part by part, where he says, but having different gifts. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth the instruction; second he assigns the reason, where he says, for as in one body, and so on. Concerning the first he does three things. First he excludes excess, saying: I have admonished that you be reformed in the newness of your understanding, which indeed you ought to do with moderation; for I say, that is, I command, through the grace, of the apostolate and by apostolic authority, that is given to me. Galatians II, 9: when they had known the grace that was given to me among the Gentiles. Ephesians III, 8: to me, the least of all the saints, is given this grace, etc., to all that are among you, because this is useful to all. I Corinthians VII, 7: I would that all men were even as myself. This, I say, I command: not to be more wise than it behooveth to be wise, that is, let no one, trusting in his own understanding or wisdom, presume beyond his measure. Ecclesiastes VII, 17: be not more wise than is necessary. Psalm 130, 1: neither have I walked in great matters, nor in wonderful things above me. Second he exhorts to that which is the mean, saying, but to be wise unto sobriety, namely I command you that you be wise with measure according to the grace given to you. For sobriety imports measure. And although it is properly said concerning the drinking of wine, it can nevertheless be taken concerning any matter whatsoever, in which man observes due measure. Titus II, v. 12: that we may live soberly, and justly, and godly in this world. Third he teaches according to what the measure of the mean is to be taken, saying, and this, I say, according as God hath divided, that is, distributed, to every one the measure of faith, that is, the measure of his gifts, which is ordered to the building up of faith. I Corinthians XII, 7: to every man is given the manifestation of the spirit unto profit. For God gives gifts of this kind, not the same to all, but distributes different ones to different people, according to that word of I Corinthians XII, 4: there are diversities of graces. Nor does he give equally to all, but to each one according to a fixed measure. Ephesians IV, 7: to every one of us is given grace according to the measure of the giving of Christ. And therefore the Apostle, being wise soberly according to this measure, said, II Corinthians X, 13: but we will not glory beyond our measure, but according to the measure of the rule, which God hath measured to us. Now to Christ alone was the spirit given not by measure, as is said in John III, 34. Now God gives not only the other graces freely given with measure, but also faith itself, which works through love. Whence Luke XVII, v. 5 the disciples said to Christ: Lord, increase our faith.

Having given the foregoing admonition, the Apostle here assigns a reason drawn from the likeness of the mystical body to the natural body. And first, in the natural body he touches on three things. First, indeed, the unity of the body, when he says, for as in one body; second, the plurality of members, when he says, we have many members: for the human body is organic, constituted out of a diversity of members; third, the diversity of functions, when he says, but all the members have not the same act. For the diversity of members would be pointless unless they were ordered to diverse acts. Then he applies these three points to the mystical body of Christ, which is the Church. Ephesians 1:22: he gave him to be head over all the Church, which is his body. Concerning this too he touches on three things. First, indeed, the multitude of the faithful, as it were of members, when he says, so we, being many. Luke 14:16: a certain man made a great supper, and invited many. Isaiah 54:1: many are the children of the desolate. For although they are few in comparison with the fruitless multitude of the damned, according to that saying of Matthew 7:14: narrow is the way that leads to life, and few find it, nevertheless, speaking absolutely, they are many. Apocalypse 7:9: after this I saw a great multitude, which no man could number. Second, he touches on the unity of the mystical body, when he says, are one body. Ephesians 2:16: that he might reconcile both in one body, and so on. Now of this mystical body the unity is spiritual, by which through faith and the affection of charity we are united to one another and to God, according to that saying of Ephesians 4:4: one body, and one spirit. And because the spirit of unity is derived into us from Christ — above, chapter 8:9: if any man have not the spirit of Christ, he is none of his — he therefore adds, in Christ, who through his Spirit, whom he gives us, unites us to one another and to God. John 17:22: that they may be one in us, as we also are one. Third, he touches on the diversity of functions reduced to the common utility, saying, and every one members one of another. For any member has its own act and power; insofar, therefore, as one member by its own power and act benefits another, it is called the member of the other, just as the foot is called a member of the eye, insofar as it carries the eye, and the eye is called a member of the foot, insofar as it directs the foot. 1 Corinthians 12:2: the eye cannot say to the hand, I need not your help. So too in the mystical body, he who has received the grace of prophecy needs him who has received the grace of healings, and so it is in all the rest. Hence, while each one of the faithful, according to the grace given to him, serves another, he is made a member of the other. Galatians, last chapter: bear ye one another's burdens. 1 Peter 4:10: as every man hath received grace, ministering the same one to another.

Then, when he says, having gifts, he carries out, part by part, the admonition which he had set down above concerning the sober and moderate use of grace. And first he sets down the diversity of graces, saying: we are, I say, members one of another, not according to the same grace, but having gifts differing according to the grace that is given us — not from a diversity of merits, but according to the grace that has been given to us. 1 Corinthians 7:7: every man hath his proper gift from God, one after this manner, and another after that. Matthew 25:14-15: he called his servants, and delivered to them his goods, and to one he gave five talents, and to another two, and to another one. Second, he teaches the use of the diverse graces, and first, in divine matters, as regards knowledge, saying: whether prophecy — which, having it, let us use according to the rule of faith. Now prophecy is said to be a certain appearance, from divine revelation, of things that are far off. Hence it is said in 1 Kings 9:9: he that is now called a prophet, in time past was called a seer. Now things are far off from our knowledge — future contingents, indeed, in themselves, which because of a defect in their being are not knowable; but divine things are far off from our knowledge not in themselves, since they are supremely knowable, because, as it is said in 1 John 1:5, God is light, and in him there is no darkness at all, but because of a defect in our intellect, which stands to those things that are in themselves most manifest as the eye of the owl stands to the light of the sun. And because a thing is more properly called such-and-such when it is such-and-such in itself, than when it is such-and-such on account of something else, it follows that future contingents are more properly said to be far off from our knowledge. And on this account, prophecy properly concerns these. Amos 3:7: the Lord God will not do any thing, without revealing his secret. Nevertheless prophecy is commonly said also to be the revelation of any hidden things whatsoever. Now this gift of prophecy was not only in the Old Testament, but also in the New — Joel 2:28: I will pour out my spirit upon all flesh, and your sons shall prophesy. Those are also called prophets in the New Testament who expound prophetic sayings, because Sacred Scripture is interpreted by the same spirit by which it was composed. Ecclesiasticus 24:46: yet again will I pour out doctrine as prophecy. Now the gift of prophecy, like the other graces freely given, is ordered to the edification of faith. 1 Corinthians 12:7: to every man is given the manifestation of the spirit for profit. Hebrews 2:3-4: was confirmed — namely, the doctrine of faith — God also bearing witness by signs and wonders, and divers miracles, and distributions of the Holy Ghost. And therefore prophecy is to be used according to the rule of faith, that is, not in vain, but so that through it faith may be confirmed, and not against faith. Hence it is said in Deuteronomy 13:1: if there rise in the midst of thee a prophet, and he say to thee, let us go, and follow strange gods; thou shalt not hear the words of that prophet — namely, because he prophesies against the rule of faith. As regards the administering of the sacraments he adds, or ministry in ministering, that is, if anyone has received the grace or office of ministry, for instance so as to be a bishop or a priest, who are called ministers of God. Isaiah 61:6: you shall be called the priests of the Lord: to you it shall be said, the ministers of our God — let him carry that out, diligently carrying it out in ministering. 2 Timothy 4:5: fulfil thy ministry. Second, he touches on things that pertain to human matters, in which one person can come to the aid of another. First, indeed, as regards knowledge, whether speculative or practical. As regards the speculative, then, he first says, or he that teacheth, that is, he who has the office or the grace of teaching, let him wait on teaching, that is, let him teach studiously and faithfully. Job 4:3: behold thou hast taught many. Matthew, last chapter: going, teach all nations. As regards practical knowledge, he adds, he that exhorteth, that is, he who has the office or the grace of exhorting men to the good, let him use it in exhorting. 1 Thessalonians 2:3: our exhortation was not of error, nor of uncleanness, nor in deceit. Titus 2:15: these things speak and exhort. Then he sets down the things that pertain to exterior works, in which sometimes someone comes to another's aid by giving some gift, and as regards this he says, he that giveth, that is, he who has the means and the grace of giving, let him carry this out with simplicity, that is, so that he intends nothing evil from it, as it were enticing men to evil by gifts. Or also when someone, from a small gift given, intends to acquire much greater things. Ecclesiasticus 20:14-15: the gift of a fool shall do thee no good, for his eyes are sevenfold. He will give little, and upbraid much. And Proverbs 11:28: the simplicity of the just shall guide them. Sometimes, however, someone comes to another's aid by having care of him, and as regards this he says, he that ruleth, that is, he who is established in the office of prelacy, let him use that office with carefulness. Hebrews, last chapter: obey your prelates, and be subject to them. For they watch as being to render an account for your souls. 2 Corinthians 11:28: the care of all the churches. Sometimes, however, someone comes to another's aid by relieving his misery, and as regards this he says, he that showeth mercy, that is, he who has the means and the affection of showing mercy, let him carry this out with cheerfulness, as it were doing this gladly. 2 Corinthians 9:7: not with sadness, or of necessity. For God loveth a cheerful giver. Ecclesiasticus 35:11: in every gift show a cheerful countenance.

Then, when he says, let love be without dissimulation, and so on, he teaches the use of the gratuitous gift which is common to all, namely, charity. And first he sets down the things that pertain to charity in general; second he sets down certain things pertaining specially to the love of certain persons, at the point, distributing to the necessities of the saints, and so on. Concerning the first he does three things. First he shows what the love of charity ought to be on the part of the one loving; second, how he ought to conduct himself toward his neighbor, at the point, loving the charity of brotherhood, etc.; third, how he ought to conduct himself toward God, at the point, in carefulness not slothful. Concerning the quality of charity he teaches three things. First, indeed, that love ought to be true. Hence he says, love without dissimulation, that is, so that it is not merely in word, or in exterior appearance, but is in the true affection of the heart, and in the efficacy of the work. 1 John 3:18: let us not love in word, nor in tongue, but in deed, and in truth. Ecclesiasticus 6:15: nothing can be compared to a faithful friend. Second, he teaches that love ought to be pure, when he says, hating that which is evil. For love is then pure too, when a man does not consent to his friend in evil, but so loves the man that he hates his vice. Hence it is said in 1 Corinthians 13:6: charity rejoiceth not in iniquity, but rejoiceth with the truth. Psalm 118:113: I have hated the unjust. Third, he teaches that love ought to be honorable, when he says, cleaving to that which is good, that is, so that someone cleaves to another on account of the good of virtue. Galatians 4:18: be zealous for that which is good, in a good thing always. This is the beautiful love, of which it is said in Ecclesiasticus 24:24: I am the mother of fair love. Then, when he says, loving the charity of brotherhood, he shows how charity ought to conduct itself toward one's neighbor. And first as regards the interior affection, when he says, loving the charity of brotherhood one toward another, so that we should not only love our brothers through charity, but also love charity itself, by which we love them and are loved by them. For thus, if we hold charity dear, we shall not easily let it be dissolved. Hebrews, last chapter: let the charity of brotherhood abide in you. Canticle of Canticles, last chapter: if a man should give all the substance of his house for love, he shall despise it as nothing. Second, as regards the exterior effect, when he says, with honor preventing one another. In this three things are designated. First, indeed, that a man ought to hold his neighbor in reverence, which pertains to the notion of honor. For no one can truly love him whom he despises. Philippians 2:3: in humility, let each esteem others better than themselves. This indeed comes about when someone considers his own defect and the good of his neighbor. Now in honor is understood not only reverence, but also the relief of necessities, just as, when it is said in Exodus 20:12, honor thy father and thy mother, the relief of necessities is enjoined, as is clear from the fact that the Lord, in Matthew 15:3ff, rebukes the Pharisees for impeding, contrary to this precept, children from relieving their parents. Second, it is designated that the effect of love ought to be shown mutually, so that a man should not only wish to receive benefits, but also to bestow them. Ecclesiasticus 4:36: let not thy hand be stretched out to receive, and shut when thou shouldst give. And 14:15-16: give and take. And this is designated when he says, one toward another. Third, it is designated that the effect of love ought to be prompt and swift, which is designated when he says, preventing, so that someone should anticipate a friend in benefits. Ecclesiasticus 37:1: every friend will say, I also have joined in friendship. Then, when he says, in carefulness, etc., he shows how the love of charity ought to conduct itself toward God. And first he begins from the very attentiveness of reason, when he says, in carefulness not slothful, namely, in serving God. Micah 6:8: I will show thee, O man, what is good, and what the Lord requireth of thee; afterward he adds, to walk solicitously with thy God. 2 Timothy 2:15: carefully study to show thyself approved unto God. Second, as regards the effect, when he says, in spirit fervent, namely, in the love of God. Now fervor proceeds from an abundance of heat, hence it is called fervor of spirit, because on account of the abundance of divine love the whole man is aflame toward God — Acts 18:25 it is said that Apollos, being fervent in spirit, spoke. 1 Thessalonians, last chapter: extinguish not the spirit. Third, as regards exterior homage, when he says, serving the Lord, namely, with the service of latria, which is owed to God alone. Deuteronomy 6:13: thou shalt adore the Lord thy God, and him only shalt thou serve. Psalm 2:11: serve ye the Lord with fear. Or, according to another reading, serving the time, so that we may do God's service at the fitting time. Ecclesiastes 8:6: every thing hath its time, and opportunity. Fourth, as regards the reward of service, when he says, rejoicing in hope, namely, of the reward, which is the enjoyment of God. Genesis 15:2: I am thy protector, and thy reward exceeding great. Above, 5:2: we glory in the hope of the glory of the sons of God. Now hope makes a man rejoice by reason of certainty, but nevertheless it afflicts by reason of delay. Proverbs 13:12: hope that is deferred afflicteth the soul. Fifth, as regards the difficulty which a man suffers in the service of God. Hence he adds, in tribulation, namely, that which you endure for God's sake, be patient. Above, 5:3: tribulation worketh patience. Sixth, as regards all the aforesaid, he says, instant in prayer, in which the assiduity of prayer is designated. Luke 18:1: we ought always to pray, and not to faint. 2 Thessalonians 5:17: pray without ceasing. For through prayer carefulness is aroused in us, fervor is kindled, we are incited to the service of God, the joy of hope is increased in us, and we merit help in tribulation. Psalm 119:1: in my trouble I cried to the Lord, and he heard me.

Then, when he says, communicating to the necessities of the saints, etc., he determines concerning charity as regards certain special persons. And first indeed as regards those in need; second as regards enemies, at the point, bless them that persecute you. Concerning the first he does two things. First he induces the showing of the benefits of charity to those in need, in general, when he says, communicating to the necessities of the saints. Here three things are to be noted. First, indeed, that alms are to be bestowed out of charity on those in need, or those suffering necessity. Ephesians 4:28: let him labor, working with his hands the thing which is good, that he may have something to give to him that suffereth need. Second, that it is rather to be aided the just and the holy than others. Hence he says, to the necessities of the saints. Ecclesiasticus 12:5: give to the just, and receive not a sinner. This indeed is not to be understood as though sinners are not to be aided even in their necessities, but that they are not to be aided so as to foster their sin. It is more useful, nevertheless, to aid the just, because such almsgiving is fruitful, not only on the part of the giver but also from the support of the recipient. Luke 16:9: make unto you friends of the mammon of iniquity, that when you shall fail, they may receive you into everlasting dwellings — namely, by their support. Second, in particular he admonishes to hospitality, saying, pursuing hospitality, because indeed in this work of mercy the other works of mercy are included. For a host not only provides a house to remain in but also supplies other necessities. Hebrews, last chapter: forget not hospitality. 1 Peter 4:9: using hospitality one towards another, without murmuring.

Above, the Apostle showed how charity is to be shown to those in need; now he shows how it is to be shown even to enemies. And first he sets down an admonition; second he proves what he said, at the words for it is written. Concerning the first, it must be considered that three things pertain to charity. First, indeed, benevolence, which consists in this, that one wills good for another and does not will evil for him; second, concord, which consists in this, that friends will and not-will the same things; third, beneficence, which consists in this, that one does good to the one he loves and does not harm him. First, therefore, he sets down the things that pertain to benevolence; second, the things that pertain to concord, at rejoice with those who rejoice; third, the things that pertain to beneficence, at render evil to no one, and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he admonishes that benevolence should be ample, extending itself even to enemies, when he says bless those who persecute you. Concerning which it must be noted that to bless is to speak good. Now it happens that one speaks good in three ways. In one way by declaring, as when someone praises another's good, as in Sirach 31:28: the lips of many shall bless him that is splendid in bread distribution, and his testimony of truth is faithful. In another way by commanding, and thus to bless by authority is proper to God, from whose command good is derived to creatures; but the ministry pertains to the ministers of God, who invoke the name of the Lord over the people. Numbers 6:22-26: thus shall you bless the children of Israel, and you shall say to them: the Lord bless you, and keep you. May the Lord show his face to you, and have mercy on you. May the Lord turn his countenance to you, and give you peace. And afterward: they shall invoke my name upon the children of Israel, and I will bless them. Third, one blesses by wishing well. Psalm 128:8: and they that passed by said not, the blessing of the Lord be upon you. And according to this, to bless is to will good for someone, and as it were to pray for good on someone's behalf. And it is taken in this way here. Hence in what is said, bless those who persecute you, it is given to understand that we ought to be benevolent even toward enemies and persecutors, wishing good things for them and praying for them. Matthew 5:44: love your enemies, and pray for those who persecute and slander you. Now what is said here is in one respect under precept, and in another respect under counsel. For that one should show, in a general way, an affection of love toward enemies, not excluding them from the common love of neighbors and from the common prayer that one makes for the faithful, pertains to the necessity of precept. Likewise also that one should, in an article of necessity, show the effect of love in a particular way even to an enemy, pertains to the necessity of precept. Hence it is said in Exodus 23:4: if you meet your enemy's ox, or his ass going astray, you shall bring it back to him. But that one should show, in a special way, an affection of love and the support of prayer, or any benefit of assistance whatsoever, to an enemy, sometimes even outside an article of manifest necessity, pertains to the perfection of counsels: because through this is shown a charity of man toward God so perfect that it overcomes all human hatred. But he who repents and asks for mercy is no longer to be counted among enemies or persecutors. Hence the signs of charity are to be shown to him without any difficulty. Sirach 28:2: forgive your neighbor when he hurts you, and then your sins shall be forgiven when you pray. Second, he teaches that benevolence or blessing should be pure, that is, without admixture of its contrary. Hence he says bless, and do not curse, that is, bless in such a way that you in no way curse. This is against certain people who bless with the mouth and curse in the heart, according to Psalm 27:3: who speak peace with their neighbor, but evils are in their hearts. And also against those who sometimes bless, sometimes curse, or bless some and curse others. James 3:10: out of the same mouth proceeds blessing and cursing; my brothers, these things ought not to be so. 1 Peter 3:9: not rendering curse for curse. But against this it seems that in sacred Scripture many curses are found. For it says in Deuteronomy 27:26: cursed be he who does not abide by the words of this law, nor fulfills them in deed. To this it must be said that to curse is to speak evil; and this, like blessing, happens in three ways, namely by declaring, by commanding, and by wishing; and according to each of these ways it can be done well or badly. For if that which is materially evil is called evil in any of the aforesaid ways, it is not unlawful under the aspect of good, because this is rather to bless than to curse: for each thing is judged more according to its form than according to its matter. But if someone speaks evil under the aspect of evil, he formally curses; hence it is altogether unlawful. Now both of these occur in this, that one declares evil by way of assertion. For sometimes one declares another's evil in order to make known a necessary truth, and thus speaks evil under the aspect of a necessary truth, which is good, hence it is lawful. And in this way it is said in Job 3:1 and following, that Job cursed his day, declaring the wretchedness of the present life, just as the Apostle says in Ephesians 5:16: redeeming the time, because the days are evil. But sometimes one declares another's evil under the aspect of evil, namely with the intention of detraction. And this is unlawful. For it is said in 1 Corinthians 6:10: neither the cursed, nor the rapacious, shall possess the kingdom of God. Likewise also in this, that one speaks evil by way of command; now it happens sometimes that one speaks what is materially evil under the aspect of good, as when, by someone's command, an evil of punishment comes upon another for the sake of justice, which indeed is lawful. And in this way transgressors of the law are cursed, that is, they are assigned to punishment according to justice. But sometimes one, by commanding, speaks another's evil unjustly, as on account of hatred and vengeance. And such a curse is unlawful. Exodus 21:17: he who curses his father or mother shall die the death. And the same holds also concerning that which one speaks as evil by way of wishing. For if one wishes this under the aspect of good, as that through someone's adversity he may come to spiritual profit, this is lawful. Job 5:3: I have seen a fool with a firm root, and I cursed his beauty at once. But if a man does this on account of hatred or vengeance, it is altogether unlawful. 1 Kings 17:43: the Philistine cursed David by his gods. Then, when he says rejoice with those who rejoice, and so on, he sets down the things that pertain to concord. And first he sets down the teachings of concord; second he removes the impediments, at not minding high things, and so on. Now concord can be considered in two ways. In one way as to its effect in good things and in evil things. In good things indeed, that one should rejoice together with the goods of others; hence he says rejoice, that is, you ought, with those who rejoice. Philippians 2:17: I rejoice and congratulate you all. But this must be understood as applying when someone rejoices over a good. Now there are some who rejoice over evil, according to Proverbs 2:14: who are glad when they have done evil, and rejoice in most wicked things. And with these one ought not to rejoice together. In 1 Corinthians 13:6 it is said of charity that it does not rejoice over iniquity, but rejoices together with the truth. In evil things, however, that one should grieve over another's evils. Hence he adds, weep, that is, you ought, with those who weep. Job 30:25: I wept formerly for him that was afflicted. Sirach 7:38: be not wanting in comforting them that weep, and walk with them that mourn. For the very compassion of a friend grieving together brings comfort in sorrows in two ways: first indeed, because from this an effective proof of friendship is gathered. Sirach 12:9 in his misfortune, that is, in his misfortune, a friend is known. And this very thing is delightful to know, that someone is a true friend to oneself. In another way, because from this very fact that a friend grieves together, he seems to offer himself to bear together the burden of adversity that causes the sorrow. And indeed what is borne by many is borne more lightly than what is borne by one alone. Second, concord consists in unity of judgment, and as to this he says the same thing, that is, be of the same mind, minding the same thing toward one another, namely that you agree in the same judgment. 1 Corinthians 1:10: that you be perfect in the same mind, and in the same judgment. Philippians 2:2: having the same charity, being of one mind, minding the same thing. It must be known, however, that judgment is twofold. One indeed pertains to the judgment of the intellect concerning speculative matters, as concerning considerations of geometry or of natural science: to disagree in such matters is not repugnant to friendship or charity, because charity is in the will. Now judgments of this kind do not proceed from the will, but from the necessity of reason. But the other judgment pertains to the judgment of reason concerning things to be done, and in such matters disagreement is contrary to friendship, because such disagreement involves a contrariety of will. And because faith is not only speculative but also practical, insofar as it works through love, as is said in Galatians 5:6, therefore also to disagree from right faith is contrary to charity. Then, when he says not minding high things, and so on, he excludes the impediments to concord, which indeed are two. The first is pride, from which it happens that, while someone inordinately seeks his own excellence and shuns subjection, he wills another to be subjected and to hinder that other's excellence. And from this discord follows. Proverbs 13:10: among the proud there are always quarrels. And therefore, to remove this, he says do not mind high things, that is, that you should not inordinately seek your own excellence. Above, in chapter 11:20: do not be high-minded, but fear. Sirach 3:22: seek not the things that are too high for you. But be consenting to the humble, that is, to those things which are humble, that is, do not refuse those things which seem lowly, when it is fitting. Psalm 83:11: I have chosen to be abject in the house of my God. 1 Peter, last chapter: humble yourselves under the mighty hand of God, and so on. The second impediment to concord is presumption of wisdom, or even of prudence, from which it happens that one does not believe the judgment of others. To remove this he says, be not wise in your own conceits, that is, that you should judge that only to be prudence which seems so to yourselves. Isaiah 5:21: woe to you that are wise in your own eyes, and prudent in your own conceits. Above, in chapter 11:25: that you may not be wise in your own conceits. Then, when he says render to no one evil for evil, and so on, he teaches the things that pertain to beneficence, by excluding its contrary. And first he teaches that no one should be done evil by reason of vengeance; second he teaches that no one should be done evil by reason of defense, at not defending yourselves. Concerning the first he does three things. First he forbids vengeance, saying rendering to no one evil for evil, namely you should be. Psalm 7:5: if I have rendered to them that repaid me evils. 1 Peter 3:9: not rendering evil for evil. But this must be understood formally, just as was said above concerning cursing: for we are forbidden to render evil for evil out of a disposition of hatred or envy, in such a way that we delight in another's evil. But if, for the evil of the fault that someone commits, a judge renders the evil of punishment according to justice, to compensate for the wickedness, he materially indeed inflicts an evil, but formally and of itself he inflicts a good. Hence when a judge hangs a thief for homicide, he does not render evil for evil, but rather good for evil. And in this way the Apostle handed over a certain man, for the sin of incest, to Satan for the destruction of the flesh, that the spirit might be saved, as is found in 1 Corinthians 5:5. Second, he teaches that goods should also be shown to neighbors, saying providing, that is, you should be, good things not only before God, that is, that you should take care to satisfy your conscience before God, but also before all men, that is, that you should do the things that please men. 1 Corinthians 10:32-33: be without offense to the Jews, and to the Gentiles, and to the Church of God, as I also in all things please all men. 2 Corinthians 8:21: providing good things not only before God, but also before all men. This, however, can happen both well and badly. For if this is done on account of human favor, it is not done well. Matthew 6:1: take heed that you do not do your justice before men, to be seen by them. But if this is done for the glory of God, it is done well, according to Matthew 5:16: so let your light shine before men, that they may see your good works, and glorify your Father who is in heaven. Third, he assigns the reason for both of the things said. For we ought to abstain from the repayment of evils, and to provide good things before men, for this reason, that we may have peace with men, and therefore he adds, having peace with all men. Hebrews, last chapter: follow peace with all men. But here he adds two things, of which the first is that he says if it can be done. For sometimes the wickedness of others prevents us from being able to have peace with them, namely because peace cannot be had with them unless one consents to their wickedness, which peace indeed is plainly unlawful. Hence the Lord says in Matthew 10:34: I came not to send peace, but the sword. The other thing he adds, saying that is of you, namely that even if they themselves act against peace, nevertheless what is in us we ought to do, so that we may seek peace with them. Psalm 119:7: with them that hated peace, I was peaceable. And elsewhere: seek peace and pursue it. Then, when he says not defending yourselves, and so on, he shows that evils are not to be inflicted on neighbors by way of defense. And first he sets down the teaching, saying do not defend yourselves, most beloved, just as it is said of Christ in Isaiah 50:6: I have given my body to the strikers, and my cheeks to them that plucked them. And Isaiah 53:7: he was dumb as a lamb before the one that shears him, and so on. Hence also the Lord himself commanded in Matthew 5:39: if anyone strikes you on one cheek, offer him the other also. But, as Augustine says in the book Against Lying, those things which were done by the saints in the New Testament are of value as examples for understanding the Scriptures, which are given in precepts. Now the Lord himself, when he had been struck with a blow, did not say, behold the other cheek; but said, if I have spoken evil, give testimony of the evil; but if well, why do you strike me? In which he shows that the preparation of the other cheek is to be made in the heart. For the Lord was prepared, not only to be struck on the other cheek for the salvation of man, but to be crucified in his whole body. And as Augustine says to Marcellinus, this commandment is then rightly fulfilled when it is believed that it will be of profit to him for whose sake it is done, for working correction and concord in him, even if another outcome should follow. These precepts of patience, therefore, are always to be kept in the preparation of the heart, and that very benevolence, that evil not be rendered for evil, is always to be fulfilled in the will. But many things must also be done, even to the unwilling, to be corrected with a certain benevolent harshness. Second, he assigns the reason, when he says but give place to wrath, that is, to the divine judgment. As if he were saying: commit yourselves to God, who by his judgment can defend and avenge you, according to 1 Peter, last chapter: casting all your care upon him, for he has care for you. But these things must be understood in the case in which we do not have the ability to act otherwise according to justice; but because, as is said in Deuteronomy 1:17, judgment is God's, when someone, by the authority of a judge, seeks vengeance to restrain wickedness and not out of hatred, or even, with the authority of some superior, procures his own defense, he is understood to give place to wrath, that is, to divine judgment, whose ministers are the princes, as is said below in chapter 13:4. Hence also Paul procured that he be defended by armed men against the plots of the Jews, as appears in Acts 23:12 and following. Then, when he says as it is written, and so on, he proves what he had said. And first by authority; second by reason, at be not overcome by evil, and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he proves what was said about the prohibition of vengeance, saying, it is said: give place to wrath, that is, to divine judgment, for it is written, Deuteronomy 32:35, vengeance is mine, namely, keep it, and I will repay, says the Lord. Our text reads thus: vengeance is mine, and I will repay them in due time. Psalm 93:1: the Lord is the God of revenges. Nahum 1:2: God is jealous and the Lord revenges. Second he proves by authority what was said about showing benevolence to enemies. In which authority indeed, first, he sets down the teaching that we should come to the aid of enemies in an article of necessity, because this is of the necessity of precept, as was said above. And this is what he says, but if your enemy is hungry, feed him; if he thirsts, give him drink. Matthew 5:44: do good to them that hate you. Second he assigns the reason, saying, for in doing this, you shall heap coals of fire upon his head. This indeed can be understood in one way as an evil, so that the sense would be: if you do good to him, your good will be turned to evil for him, because from this he will incur the burning of eternal fire through his ingratitude. But this sense is repugnant to charity, against which one would act who assisted someone so that it should turn to that person's evil. And therefore it must be expounded as a good, so that the sense is, for in doing this, that is, coming to his aid in necessity, coals of fire, that is, the love of charity, of which it is said in Canticles 8:6, its lamps are as lamps of fire and flames, you shall heap, that is, you shall gather, upon his head, that is, upon his mind. Because, as Augustine says in the book On Catechizing the Uninstructed, there is no greater inducement to loving than to be first in loving. For too hard is the mind that, even if it was unwilling to bestow love, is unwilling to repay it. Then, when he says be not overcome by evil, and so on, he proves what he said by reason. For it is natural to man to will to overcome his adversary and not to be overcome by him. Now that thing is overcome by another which is drawn to that other, just as water is overcome by fire when it is drawn to the heat of fire. If, therefore, some good man, on account of the evil that is inflicted on him by someone, is drawn to this, that he does evil to him, the good is overcome by the evil. But if, on the contrary, on account of the kindness that the good man shows to his persecutor, he draws that persecutor to love of himself, the good man overcomes the evil. He says, therefore, be not overcome by the evil of him who persecutes you, so that you should persecute him, but in your good overcome his evil, namely, that by doing good to him, you draw him away from evil. 1 John, last chapter: this is the victory that overcomes the world, our faith. Jeremiah 15:19: they shall be turned to you, and you shall not be turned to them.