Commentary on Romans (Super Epistolam B. Pauli ad Romanos Lectura)

After the Apostle has shown how a man ought to conduct himself toward God, by using the gifts of his grace, he here shows how he ought to conduct himself toward his neighbor: first, as regards those set over him; second, as regards all, at the place, "Owe no man anything," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First, he leads men to the subjection which they owe to their superiors; second, to showing a sign of that subjection, at the place, "therefore you also pay tribute," etc. Concerning the first he does three things. First, he sets forth the teaching; second, he assigns the reason, at the place, "for there is no power," etc.; third, he draws the intended conclusion, at the place, "therefore," etc.

Concerning the first, it must be considered that certain believers in the primitive Church said that they ought not be subject to earthly powers, on account of the liberty which they had obtained from Christ, according to that word of John 8: "if the Son shall have made you free, you shall be free indeed." But the liberty granted through Christ is the liberty of the spirit, by which we are freed from sin and death, as was said above in chapter 8: "the law of the spirit in Christ Jesus has freed me from the law of sin and death." But the flesh still remains subject to servitude, as was said above. And therefore man, freed through Christ, will not then be subject to any subjection at all—neither, that is, spiritual nor carnal. Whence it is said in 1 Corinthians 15:24: "when Christ shall have delivered up the kingdom to God the Father, and shall have brought to nothing all principality and power." In the meantime, however, while we bear corruptible flesh, we must be subject to carnal lords. Whence it is said in Ephesians 6:5: "servants, obey your carnal lords." And this is also what the Apostle here says: "let every soul be subject to the higher powers." Now the "higher powers" are here called the men established in positions of power, to whom we ought to be subject according to the order of justice. 1 Peter 2:23: "be subject to every human creature for God's sake, whether it be to the king as excelling, or to governors, as sent by him," etc. He says indefinitely "the higher powers," so that we may be subject to them by reason of the sublimity of their office, even if they should be wicked. Whence 1 Peter 2:18 adds: "be subject not only to the good and gentle, but also to the froward." And what is said, "every soul," is understood by synecdoche as "every man," just as also in Genesis 17:14: "that soul shall be cut off from his people." He uses this manner of speaking because we owe subjection to our superiors "from the soul," that is, from a pure will, according to that word of Ephesians 6:6-7: "not serving to the eye, as pleasing men, but from the soul, with good will."

Then, when he says "for there is no power," etc., he sets down the reason for the admonition just given. First, indeed, on the part of what is honorable; second, on the part of what is necessary, at the place, "but they that resist," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth two principles beforehand; second from them he draws a conclusion, at the place, "therefore he that resisteth," etc.

First, then, he sets forth beforehand the origin of power, saying, "for there is no power but from God." For whatever is said commonly of God and of creatures is derived from God into creatures, as is evident concerning wisdom, Ecclesiasticus 1:1: "all wisdom is from the Lord God." Now power is said both of God and of men. Job 36:5: "God does not cast away powers, since he himself is powerful." Whence it follows that all human power is from God. Daniel 4:14: "the most High rules in the kingdom of men, and he will give it to whomsoever he will." John 19:11: "thou shouldst not have any power against me, unless it were given thee from above." But there seems to be something against this in what is said in Hosea 8:4: "they have reigned, but not by me: they have been princes, and I knew it not." To this it must be said that royal power, or that of any other dignity, can be considered in three respects. In one way, as regards the power itself, and thus it is from God, through whom kings reign, as is said in Proverbs 8:15. In another way, it can be considered as regards the manner of obtaining the power, and thus power is sometimes from God—namely when someone obtains power in an orderly way, according to that word of Hebrews 5:4: "no man takes the honor to himself, but he that is called by God, as Aaron was." But sometimes it is not from God but from the perverse appetite of man, who obtains power through ambition, or through some other illicit means. Amos 6:14: "have we not taken unto us horns by our own strength?" In a third way, it can be considered as regards its use: and thus it is sometimes from God, as when someone uses the power granted to him according to the precepts of divine justice, according to that word of Proverbs 8:15: "by me kings reign," etc. But sometimes it is not from God, as when some use the power given to them against divine justice, according to that word of Psalm 2:2: "the kings of the earth stood up, and the princes met together, against the Lord," etc.

There is also a doubt concerning the power of sinning, whether it is from God. To this it must be said that the very power by which one sins is from God. For it is the same power by which one sins and by which one acts rightly; but that it be ordered to good is from God, whereas that it be ordered to sin is from the defect of the creature, insofar as the creature is from nothing.

Second, he sets down that "the things that are, are ordained of God," the reason for which is that God made all things through his wisdom, according to that word of Psalm 103:24: "thou hast made all things in wisdom." Now it is proper to wisdom to dispose all things in an orderly way. Wisdom 8:1: "she reaches from end to end mightily, and orders all things sweetly." And therefore the divine effects must needs be ordered. Job 38:33: "dost thou know the order of the heavens, and canst thou set down the reason thereof on the earth?" Now God has instituted a twofold order among his effects: one indeed by which all things are ordered to himself, Proverbs 16:4: "God has made all things for himself"; the other by which the divine effects are ordered to one another, as is said in Deuteronomy 4:19 concerning the sun and the moon and the stars, that he "made them for the service of all nations."

Then, when he says "therefore he that resisteth," etc., he draws the intended conclusion from the two principles set down before. For if the power of princes, insofar as it is such, is from God, and nothing is from God without order, it follows that also the order, by which those who are lower are subjected to the higher powers, is from God. Therefore whoever resists power, contrary to this order, "resisteth the ordinance of God." 1 Kings 8:7: "they have not rejected thee, but me, that I should not reign over them." Luke 10:16: "he who despises you, despises me." Now to resist the divine ordinance is contrary to the honorableness of virtue. Whence whoever resists power, in that which pertains to the order of its power, acts against virtue.

Then, when he says "but they that resist," etc., he shows that this kind of subjection is not only honorable, but necessary. And first he proposes what he intends; second he proves the proposition, at the place, "for princes," etc. He says therefore first: it has been said that he who resists power, "resisteth the ordinance of God," which indeed in itself is to be avoided, as being contrary to virtue. Many, however, are those who, not having love of virtue, do not detest the things that are contrary to virtue. Whence such must be compelled to avoid evils through punishments, and as to this he adds: "but they that resist"—namely, the divine ordinance—"purchase to themselves damnation," by acting against the order of power. This can indeed be understood, in one way, of eternal damnation, which those merit who are unwilling to be subject to the powers in that which they owe. As an example of this, Dathan and Abiram, who resisted Moses and Aaron, were swallowed up by the earth, as is found in Numbers 16:20 and following. In another way it can be understood of the damnation of punishment, which is inflicted through the princes themselves. Proverbs 20:2: "as the roaring of a lion, so also is the dread of a king: he that provokes him, sins against his own soul."

But there seems to be something against this, namely that the apostles and martyrs resisted princes and powers, and from this obtained not damnation from God but reward. But it must be said that the Apostle here is speaking of him who resists a lower power, insofar as it is ordained by God. Now the divine ordinance has this, that a lower power is not to be obeyed against a higher one, just as also in human affairs a proconsul is not to be obeyed against the emperor, nor a bailiff against the king. And every human power is ordered under the power of God, and no human power is to be obeyed against God, according to that word of Acts 5:29: "we ought to obey God rather than men."

Then, when he says "for princes," etc., he assigns the reason for what he had said. And first he sets forth the reason; second, from the reason set down, he draws a certain useful teaching, at the place, "wilt thou then not be afraid of the power," etc. Third, he assigns the necessity of this teaching, at the place, "but if thou do that which is evil," etc. He says therefore first: it has been said that they who resist power purchase to themselves damnation, "for princes"—who are here called "powers"—"are not a terror to good work," that is, unto fear on account of good work, "but to the evil," that is, on account of evil. This indeed seems to be understood according to the cause for which princes are instituted. For princes are instituted for this purpose: that those who are not moved by love of virtue to avoid evil and to do good may be compelled to this by fear of punishment. Proverbs 20:8: "the king that sitteth on the throne of judgment, scatters away all evil with his look." And according to this it is said that princes "are not a terror to good work but to the evil," as regards that which belongs to the prince by office, just as also it is said in Isaiah 32:8: "the prince will think of such things as are worthy of a prince."

This can also be referred to wicked princes, who are not a terror to good work but to evil: because even if they sometimes unjustly persecute those who do well, nevertheless those who do well have no cause to fear, because this very thing, if they bear it patiently, turns to their good, according to that word of 1 Peter 3:14: "if you suffer anything for justice' sake, blessed are you: and be not afraid of their fear, that you be not troubled." From what is here said, moreover, the reason can be assigned why those who resist power purchase to themselves damnation—whether it be understood of the damnation of punishment, by which rebellious princes punish them, or of the damnation by which men are punished by God. For if princes are a terror to evil work, it follows that if someone resists power, he does evil; and thus the man himself, by acting evilly, is to himself the cause of temporal and eternal punishment.

Then, when he says "wilt thou then not be afraid," etc., from what he had said he hands down a certain useful teaching, namely, of avoiding fear of princes. And first, by his question, he intimates that this is desirable, saying, "wilt thou then not be afraid of the power?" As if he were to say: this ought to be pleasing to a man. Proverbs 20:2: "as the roaring of a lion, so also is the dread of a king." Second, he teaches the means of arriving at this, saying, "do that which is good"; for, as is said in Proverbs 16:13: "the will of kings is just lips"; and in Psalm 100:6: "he that walked in the perfect way, he served me." Third, he shows the effect of this, saying: "and thou shalt have praise from the same," that is, from that power—if it is understood, that is, if this be taken according to the end for which powers were instituted—not only shalt thou avoid fear, but thou shalt also have praise from it. For powers were instituted for this: not only to draw men back from evils by fear of punishments, but also to entice them to good through rewards, according to that word of 1 Peter 2:14: "or to governors as sent by him for the punishment of evildoers, and for the praise of the good." This is verified also concerning wicked princes, whose unjust persecution, while the good bear it patiently, is praised. James 5:11: "behold, we account them blessed who have endured."

Fourth, he assigns the reason, saying, "for he is God's minister to thee, for good." This indeed is manifestly evident, as regards the due order of princes. For they are under the rule of God, as of the supreme prince, as ordained ministers. Wisdom 6:3: "since you were ministers of his kingdom," etc. Now the minister and the lord tend to the same thing. Ecclesiasticus 10:2: "as the judge of the people is himself, so also are his ministers." And therefore, just as God works for good in those who do good, so also do princes, if they rightly fulfill their ministry. But wicked princes too are ministers of God, according to God's ordinance for inflicting punishments, although this is beside their own intention; according to that word of Isaiah 10:5: "Assyria is the rod of my fury, and the staff in whose hand is my indignation. But he shall not think so." And Jeremiah 25:9: "I will take all the kindreds of the north, and Nebuchadnezzar the king of Babylon my servant, and will bring them against this land, and against the inhabitants thereof," etc. And because such wicked princes sometimes, with God permitting, afflict the good, this turns to their good, according to that word above in chapter 8:28: "to them that love God," etc.

Then, when he says "but if thou do that which is evil," etc., he shows the necessity of the teaching just given. For it has been said that by doing good thou shalt not fear power; "but if thou do that which is evil, fear": because thou hast cause of fear. Proverbs 10:29: "fear is to them that work evil." Wisdom 17:11: "wickedness being fearful, gives testimony of its condemnation." Second, he assigns the reason, saying, "for he beareth not the sword in vain." Now he speaks according to the custom of princes, who, as insignia of their power, used to carry instruments of punishment—for instance, bundles of rods for beating, and axes or swords for killing. Job 19:29: "flee ye from the face of the sword, for the sword is the revenger of iniquities." Third, he explains the reason, saying: he carries, I say, the sword, "for he is God's minister; an avenger," that is, executing vengeance, "to execute wrath," that is, to carry out the wrath of God, that is, his just judgment, "upon him that doth evil," that is, against the evildoer. Ezekiel 17:37 and following: "behold, I will gather together all thy lovers, and I will judge thee in the judgments of adulteresses, and I will give thee into their hands," etc. Proverbs 16:12: "kings that do wickedly are abominable, for the throne is established by justice." From which it is clear that it is not only lawful but even meritorious for princes, who out of zeal for justice exercise vengeance upon evildoers, to do so. Whence it is said in Ezekiel 29:19-20: "there shall be wages for his army, and for the work with which he served me against it."

Then, when he says "therefore be subject of necessity," etc., he draws the conclusion principally intended, saying: "therefore," on account of the aforesaid reasons, "be subject to princes of necessity"—namely, because this is of the necessity of salvation—or, be subject willingly to the necessity which the power of princes imposes upon you, so that you may make a virtue of necessity; "not only for wrath's sake," that is, for the avoiding of vengeance, which pertains to the second reason, "but also for conscience' sake"—that is, for the preserving of a good conscience—which pertains to the first reason, because he who resists power "resisteth the ordinance of God." Titus 3:1: "admonish them to be subject to princes and powers."

Then, when he says "for therefore you also pay tribute," etc., he leads men to show to their superiors a sign of subjection. And first he sets down the sign of subjection; second he leads them to show it, at the place, "render therefore," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets down the sign of subjection, saying: "for therefore"—namely because you ought to be subject—"you also pay tribute," that is, you ought to pay it, namely as a sign of subjection. And thus it is said, complaining, in Lamentations 1:1: "the princess of provinces has become tributary." Now they are called "tributes" because subjects "attribute" them to their lords. Second, he assigns the reason, saying, "for they are the ministers of God," in this very thing, that is, on his behalf, namely by receiving tributes, "serving"—namely God—and the people. As if he were to say: each man ought to live from his own ministry, according to that word of 1 Corinthians 9:7: "who feeds a flock, and does not eat of the milk of the flock?" And therefore, since our princes minister to God through their governance, they ought to receive tributes from the people, as it were the stipends of their ministry—yet not in such a way that they ought to reckon this to themselves as a reward. For the proper reward of a prince is praise and honor, as the Philosopher says in Ethics V. And when this does not suffice him, he becomes a tyrant. But this is not to be understood of human praise alone or honor, because such a reward would be vain, but of divine praise and honor, which is shown to princes who govern well. Wisdom 6:22: "O kings of the people, love wisdom, that you may reign forever."

Now princes receive tributes of this sort for their sustenance, but they labor for the peace of all. Whence it is said in 1 Timothy 2:1-2: "I desire, first of all, that supplications be made for kings, and for all that are in high station, that we may lead a quiet and a peaceable life." Baruch 1:11-12: "pray for the life of Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, that we may live under his shadow." From this debt, however, clerics are free by the privilege of princes, which indeed has a natural equity. Whence also among the gentiles those who were occupied with divine matters were free from tributes. For it is read in Genesis 47:20-22 that Joseph subjected to Pharaoh the whole land of Egypt, except the land of the priests, which had been given to them by the king, to whom also fixed provisions were supplied from the public granaries. And below it is said that in the whole land of Egypt, a fifth part is paid, except for the priestly land, which was free from this condition. Now this is equitable for this reason: that just as kings have care for the common good in temporal goods, so the ministers of God have care in spiritual goods, and thus, by ministering to God in spiritual things, they compensate the king for laboring for their peace.

But it must be noted: since he says that tributes are owed to kings as a stipend of their labor, princes can sin in a twofold way in receiving tributes. First, indeed, if they do not procure the benefit of the people but intend only to plunder their goods. Whence it is said in Ezekiel 34:3: "you ate the milk, and you clothed yourselves with the wool, and you killed that which was fat, but my flock you did not feed." In another way, from the fact that they violently seize beyond the established law, which is as it were a certain pact between king and people, and beyond the people's capacity. Whence it is said in Micah 3:1: "hear, O princes of Jacob, and you leaders of the house of Israel." And afterward he adds: "you who violently tear their skins off from them, and their flesh from off their bones."

Then, when he says "render therefore," etc., he admonishes them to render the aforesaid sign of subjection. And first, indeed, in general, saying: since tribute is owed to princes, as to God's ministers, "render therefore to all men their dues." From which it is clear that subjects are bound, out of the necessity of justice, to show their princes what is their right. Matthew 18:24: "there was offered to him one who owed him ten thousand talents." And Matthew 22:21: "render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's," etc.

Second, he specifies, and, first, the things that are exterior, saying: "to whom tribute"—namely you owe it—"render tribute," because, that is, it is attributed to the prince for the general governance, by which he governs the country in peace and quiet. Genesis 49:15: "he saw rest that it was good, and was made a servant unto tribute." "To whom custom"—namely you owe it—"render custom," which, that is, is rendered to the prince in certain fixed places from merchandise, which are brought for the repair of roads and for guarding them. Or "custom" is said to be what is given to the prince when it is carried through the country, as are the provisions for officials and other such things.

Second, he sets down the things that are to be shown inwardly. Now it must be considered that both fear and honor are owed to the prince: fear, indeed, insofar as he is lord, restraining the wicked from evils by his power. Malachi 1:6: "if I be a lord, where is my fear?" And therefore he says: "to whom fear"—namely you owe it—"render fear." Proverbs 24:21: "fear God, my son." But insofar as, as it were a father, he provides good things which are to their praise, honor is owed to him. Malachi 1:6: "if I be a father, where is my honor?" And therefore he adds, "to whom honor"—namely you owe it—"render honor." 1 Peter 2:17: "honor the king." But there seems to be something against this in what is said in Leviticus 19:15: "thou shalt not honor the countenance of the mighty." But this must be understood as meaning that you should not, for his sake, decline from justice. Whence it is added: "judge thy neighbor justly."

Above, the Apostle showed how the faithful ought to observe justice toward their superiors; here he shows what they ought to render to all in common. And concerning this he does two things. First he sets down what he intends; second he gives the reason, at the words for he who loves. He says therefore first: it has been said, render to all their debts, not indeed partially, but in their entirety, and this is what he adds: owe no man anything. As if to say: pay all debts to all so fully that nothing remains which you ought to pay. And this for two reasons. First, because in the very delay of paying, sin is committed, since a man unjustly withholds what belongs to another. Hence it is said in Leviticus 19:13: the wages of thy hired man shall not abide with thee until the morning. And the same reasoning applies to other debts. Second, because as long as someone owes something, he is in a certain way a slave, and is bound to the one to whom he owes it. Proverbs 22:7: he that taketh a loan is servant to him that lendeth. There are, however, certain debts from which a man can never absolve himself. And this happens in two ways. In one way, on account of the excellence of the benefit, for which an equivalent recompense cannot be paid back: as the Philosopher says concerning the honor shown to God or to parents, according to that word of Psalm 115:12: what shall I render to the Lord for all that he has rendered to me? In another way, on account of the cause of owing, which always remains; or also because that which is rendered is never exhausted but always grows in the rendering. And for these causes the debt of fraternal love is paid in such a way that it is always still owed. First indeed because we owe love to our neighbor on account of God, to whom we cannot make sufficient recompense. For it is said in 1 John 4:21: this commandment we have from God, that he who loves God should love his brother also. Second, because the cause of love always remains, which is the likeness of nature and of grace. Ecclesiasticus 13:19: every beast loves its like, so also does every man love his neighbor. Third, because charity in loving does not fail but advances. Philippians 1:9: this I pray, that your charity may abound more and more. Therefore he says except that you love one another, because, that is, the debt of love is so paid once for all that it nevertheless always remains under the debt of the precept. John 15:12: this is my commandment, that you love one another. Then, when he says for he who loves, etc., he assigns the reason for what he had said, that we are never absolved from the debt of love, namely because in love consists the whole fulfilling of the law. Hence concerning this he does three things. First he sets forth what he intends; second he makes clear his proposition, at the words for thou shalt not commit adultery, etc.; third he draws the intended conclusion, at the words love therefore is the fulfilling of the law, etc. He says therefore first: it has therefore been said that we should not think ourselves free from the debt of love, as we are from other debts, for he who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law, that is, the whole fulfilling of the law depends on love of neighbor. But this does not seem to be true. For it is said in 1 Timothy 1:5: the end of the commandment is charity. For each thing is perfected when it arrives at its end; and therefore the whole perfection of the law consists in charity. But charity has two acts, namely love of God and love of neighbor; hence the Lord also said in Matthew 22:40 that the whole law and the prophets hang on two commandments of charity, one of which concerns love of God, the other love of neighbor. It does not seem, therefore, that he who loves his neighbor fulfills the whole law. But it must be said that that love of neighbor which pertains to charity and fulfills the law is the love by which the neighbor is loved on account of God; and so in the love of neighbor the love of God is included, as a cause is included in its effect. For it is said in 1 John 4:21: and this commandment we have from God, that he who loves God should love his brother also. And, conversely, love of neighbor is included in love of God, as an effect is included in its cause; hence in the same place it is said: if any man shall say that I love God, and hateth his brother, he is a liar. And hence it is that in sacred Scripture mention is sometimes made only of the love of God, as if it sufficed for salvation, according to that word of Deuteronomy 10:12: and now, Israel, what doth the Lord thy God require of thee, but that thou fear the Lord thy God, and walk in his ways, and love him? And sometimes mention is made only of love of neighbor. John 15:12: these things I command you, that you love one another. Then, when he says for thou shalt not commit adultery, etc., he proves his proposition. First indeed by induction; second by the middle term of a syllogism, at the words love of neighbor, etc. Concerning the first, in the manner of those who use induction, he enumerates certain precepts which fulfill the love of neighbor. And because the three precepts of the first table are more immediately ordered to the love of God, he makes no mention of them here, although they too are fulfilled in the love of neighbor, insofar as the love of God is included in the love of neighbor. He enumerates, however, the commandments of the second table, but omits the affirmative precept only which concerns the honor of parents, in which too it is understood that we should render to all what we owe them. He enumerates, moreover, the negative precepts, by which someone is forbidden to inflict evil on his neighbors. And this for a twofold reason. First indeed, because negative precepts are more universal, both as to times and as to persons. As to times indeed, because negative precepts oblige always and for always. For at no time is one to steal or commit adultery. Affirmative precepts, however, oblige indeed always, but not for always, but according to place and time; for a man is not bound to honor his parents at every time, but according to place and time. As to persons, however, because no man is to be harmed, but we are not sufficient that one man could serve all men. Second, because it is more evident that the negative precepts are fulfilled through love of neighbor than the affirmative ones. For he who loves someone abstains the more from doing him harm, than he bestows benefits on him, from which a man is sometimes hindered by lack of power. Now in three ways can someone inflict harm on his neighbor. In one way, by deed; in another way, by word; third, by desire. By deed indeed in three ways. In one way as regards the person of the neighbor himself, and this is forbidden when it is said thou shalt not kill. In which too is understood to be forbidden every injury inflicted on the person of a neighbor. 1 John 3:15: no murderer hath eternal life abiding in himself. Second, as regards a person joined to him, namely his wife, and this is forbidden when it is said thou shalt not commit adultery. In which too is understood to be forbidden fornication and every illicit use of the genital members. Hebrews, last chapter: fornicators and adulterers God will judge. Third, as regards external things, which is forbidden when it is said thou shalt not steal. In which too is forbidden every unjust taking away of another's property, whether by force or by fraud. Zechariah 5:3: every thief, as it is written there, shall be judged. Harm, however, which someone inflicts on his neighbor by word, is forbidden when it is said thou shalt not speak false testimony. Which is forbidden not only in judgment but also outside judgment, whether by way of detraction or by way of insult. Proverbs 19:5: a false witness shall not be unpunished, and he that speaketh lies shall not escape. Harm, however, which someone inflicts on his neighbor by desire alone, is forbidden when it is said thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's goods. Where too is understood to be forbidden the coveting of his wife; above, chapter 7:7: for I knew not concupiscence, namely, that it was a sin, unless the law said: thou shalt not covet. These commandments are set down in Exodus 20:17ff. Having enumerated several precepts, he gathers all the others together in common, saying and if there be any other commandment, whether affirmative or negative, or pertaining to God or to neighbor, in the manner said above, it is renewed, that is, it is perfected and fulfilled, in this word: thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. Which indeed is set down in Leviticus 19:18, where we have: thou shalt love thy friend as thyself. Now what he says thy neighbor is to be referred to every man and also to the holy Angels, as Augustine proves in Book I of On Christian Doctrine. For by the name of neighbor is understood whoever shows mercy to someone, according to that word of Luke 10:36: which of these three, in thy opinion, was neighbor to him that fell among robbers? And he said: he that shewed mercy to him, etc. And because a neighbor is neighbor to a neighbor, it follows that he too, who receives mercy from someone, is called that one's neighbor. Now the holy Angels bestow mercy upon us, and we ought to bestow mercy upon all men and to receive it from them when it is necessary. Hence it is clear that both the holy Angels and all men are called our neighbors, because the beatitude to which we tend, they either already possess, or they tend toward it together with us. From which it is clear that the demons, according to this reasoning, are not our neighbors, nor is love of them enjoined upon us under this precept, because they are totally excluded from the love of God and are not to be counted in the number of neighbors, but in the number of enemies. Now what he says as thyself is not to be referred to an equality of love, as though someone were bound to love his neighbor equally with himself: for this would be against the order of charity, by which each is more bound to care for his own salvation than for the salvation of others. Song of Songs 2:4: he set in order charity in me. But it is to be referred to a likeness of love, namely that we should love our neighbor in a manner like that in which we love ourselves. And this in three ways. First indeed as to the end of love, namely that we should love both ourselves and our neighbor on account of God. Second as to the form of love, namely that just as someone loves himself, as it were willing good to himself, so should someone love his neighbor, as it were willing good things to him. But he who loves his neighbor only in order that he may possess his usefulness or his affection, does not will good to his neighbor, but wills good for himself from his neighbor. In which manner indeed a man is said to love irrational things, for instance wine or water, namely so as to make use of them. Third as to the effect of love, namely that someone should come to the aid of his neighbor's need, as he would to his own, and that he should commit nothing unlawful out of love for his neighbor, just as he ought not on account of love of himself. Then, when he says love of neighbor, etc., he makes clear his proposition by the middle term of a syllogism, in this manner: he who loves his neighbor works no evil toward him. But every precept of the law tends to this, that one abstain from evil. He therefore who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law. Now that the love of neighbor works no evil is had in 1 Corinthians 13:4: charity dealeth not perversely, etc. In whatever way evil is here taken, whether for the evil of transgression, or also of omission, this can be referred not only to the negative precepts but also to the affirmative ones. But insofar as love of neighbor includes love of God, it is understood that love of neighbor excludes evil, not only that which is against the neighbor, but also that which is against God. And thus the precepts of the first table are also included. Last, he draws the conclusion principally intended, saying love therefore is the fulfilling of the law, that is, through love the law is fulfilled and perfected. Ecclesiasticus 24:16: in the fullness of the saints is my abode. Colossians 3:14: have charity, which is the bond of perfection.

After the Apostle has shown how a man ought to show himself devout toward God, by making fitting use of his gifts, and how he ought to render his neighbor what is justly owed him, here he shows how a man ought to preserve honesty within himself. And concerning this he does two things. First he sets forth the fittingness of the time; second he exhorts to the honesty of works, at the passage let us cast off, therefore, etc. Concerning the first he does three things. First he lays down the fittingness of the time; second he assigns the reason for it, at the passage for now is nearer, etc.; third he brings in a comparison, at the passage the night has gone before, etc.

He says therefore first: it has been said what you ought to observe, and this, not only on account of the things that have been said, but also knowing this time — that is, by reason of the fact that you ought to consider the condition of this time, because, as is said in Ecclesiastes 8:6: for every business there is a time and an opportunity. Jeremiah 8:7: the kite in the sky has known its time, the turtledove and the swallow and the stork have kept the time of their coming, but my people, etc. But to what end this time is fitting he shows, adding because it is now the hour for us to rise from sleep. This indeed is to be understood not of the sleep of nature, which is sometimes called death, according to that word of 1 Thessalonians 4:12: we do not wish you to be ignorant concerning those who sleep — and is sometimes the rest of the animal powers, according to that word of John 11:12: if he sleeps, he will be safe. Nor again is it to be understood of the sleep of grace, which is sometimes called the rest of eternal glory, according to that word of Psalm 4:9: in peace, in the very same, etc. — and is sometimes the rest of contemplation even in this life. Song of Songs 5:2: I sleep, and my heart watches. But it is understood of the sleep of guilt, according to that word of Ephesians 5:14: arise, you who sleep, and arise from the dead, etc.; or also of negligence, according to that word of Proverbs 6:9: how long, sluggard, will you sleep? It is, therefore, the time to rise from the sleep of guilt through penance — Psalm 126:2: rise, after you have sat, etc. — and from the sleep of negligence through diligence in doing well — Isaiah 21:5: rise up, princes, take up the shield. Ecclesiasticus 32:15: let not the hour of rising grieve you.

Then, when he says for now, etc., he assigns the reason for what he had said, saying for now our salvation is nearer than when we believed. This indeed, according to the Apostle's intention, is understood of the salvation of eternal life, of which it is said in Isaiah 51:8: but my salvation shall be forever. Now to this salvation man is ordered, first indeed, through faith. Mark, last chapter: he who shall have believed and been baptized shall be saved. But man always draws nearer and nearer to it through good works and the increase of charity. Hence it is said in James 4:8: draw near to God, and he will draw near to you. This, then, is what the Apostle says: therefore it is now the hour for us to rise from sleep, for now — namely, when we have advanced through good works and through the increase of charity — nearer, that is, closer, is — namely to us — our salvation, namely of eternal life, of which it is said in Isaiah 51:8: but my salvation shall be forever — than when we believed, that is, than when from the beginning we received the faith. And here a twofold nearness can be understood. One indeed according to time, by which holy men, advancing in works of righteousness, draw nearer to the end of this life, in which they receive their reward. The other is the nearness of disposition or preparation, because through the increase of charity and the working of righteousness man is prepared for that salvation. Matthew 25:10: those who were ready went in with him to the wedding.

But according as the Church reads these words at the time of Advent, these words seem to be referable to the salvation which Christ wrought in his first coming, so that we understand the Apostle speaking as it were in the person of all the faithful who have been from the beginning of the world. For when the time of Christ's incarnation was already drawing near, at which the prophecies of the prophets were multiplying — which time the Church represents — it could be said: now our salvation is nearer, namely Christ, than when we believed, that is, than when men from the beginning began to believe that Christ's coming would come. Isaiah 56:1: my salvation is near, that it may come, and my righteousness, that it may be revealed. It could also be taken for the time of mercy, in which someone begins to wish to depart from past sins. For then he draws nearer to his salvation than at the beginning, when he had unformed faith. James 4:7-8: resist the devil, and he will flee from you; draw near to God, and he will draw near to you, etc.

Then, when he says the night has gone before, but the day has drawn near, etc., he sets down a comparison for his purpose. This indeed, according to the Apostle's intention, seems to be understood thus: that the whole time of the present life is compared to night, on account of the darkness of ignorance by which the present life is weighed down. Job 31:1: for indeed we are all wrapped in darkness, etc. And of this night it is said in Isaiah 26:9: my soul has desired you in the night. But to the day is compared the state of future blessedness, on account of the clarity of God, by which the saints are illumined. Isaiah 60:19: the sun shall no more be to you for light by day, nor shall the brightness of the moon give you light, but the Lord shall be to you for an everlasting light. To which day is referred what is said in Psalm 117:24: this is the day which the Lord has made; let us rejoice and be glad in it.

In another way it can be understood that the state of guilt is compared to night, on account of the darkness of guilt, of which it is said in Psalm 81:5: they have not known, nor understood; they walk in darkness. And of this night it is said in Wisdom 17:20: but upon them alone was there spread a heavy night, an image of the darkness that was to come upon them. But the day is called the state of grace, on account of the light of spiritual understanding, which the just have but which is lacking to the impious. Psalm 96:11: light has arisen for the just. Wisdom 5:6: the sun of understanding has not risen for us.

In a third way it can be understood that the time preceding the incarnation of Christ is compared to night, because it was not yet made manifest, but was under a certain gloom. 2 Peter 1:19: you have the prophetic word, to which you do well to attend as to a lamp shining in a dark place. And of this night it is said in Isaiah 21:11: watchman, what of the night? Hence, just as in the night shadows appear, so also in that time the legal observances stood out, which are the shadow of things to come, as is said in Colossians 2:17. But the time from the incarnation of Christ is compared to day, on account of the power of the spiritual sun in the world, of which it is said in Malachi, last chapter: for you who fear my name, the sun of righteousness shall arise. Hence the Lord himself also says in John 9:4: I must work the works of him who sent me, while it is day. And afterward he adds: as long as I am in the world, I am the light of the world.

That which is said, therefore, the night has gone before, can be taken indifferently for any of the three aforesaid nights. For it had already gone before, both for those to whom he was writing, and for a great part of the time of this life; and — which is truer — the night of guilt had gone before; the time of the law also had gone before, which was before Christ. But what he adds, but the day has drawn near, seems, according to the Apostle's intention, to be referred to the day of future glory, which, although it had not yet come for the faithful of Christ to whom he was writing, was nevertheless near to them. According to what has been said, it could also be understood of the time of Christ's grace, which, although it has already come according to the course of time, is nevertheless said to draw near to us through faith and devotion, just as it is said in Philippians 4:5: the Lord is near, and in Psalm 144:18: the Lord is near to all who call upon him. This can also fit those who begin to repent of their sins, to whom the day of grace draws near.

Then, when he says let us cast off, etc., he concludes the exhortation concerning honesty of life. And first he sets down the exhortation; second he expounds it, at the passage not in reveling, etc. Concerning honesty of life he touches on three things.

First indeed, concluding from what has been premised, the removal of vices: if the night has gone before, as has been said, let us cast off the works of darkness, because, as is said in Ecclesiastes 8:6, for every business there is a time and an opportunity. Hence, the night receding, the works of the night ought to cease. Now the works of sins are called the works of darkness: first indeed, because in themselves they are deprived of the light of reason, by which human works ought to be illumined — Ecclesiastes 2:14: the eyes of the wise man are in his head, the fool walks in darkness; second, because they are done in the dark — Job 24:15: the eye of the adulterer watches for darkness; third, because through them man is led to darkness, according to that word of Matthew 22:13: cast him into the outer darkness.

Second, he leads us to take up the virtues, as if to say: since the day has drawn near, taking up the things that are fitting for day, let us put on the armor of light, that is, the virtues, which are also called armor inasmuch as they fortify us. Ephesians, last chapter: put on the armor of God, that you may be able to stand against the snares of the devil. And they are called the armor of light, both because they are adorned and perfected by the light of reason — hence it is said in Proverbs 4:18: the path of the just, as a shining light, goes forward — and because they require the testing of light — John 3:21: he who does the truth comes to the light — and because through the works of the virtues others are enlightened — Matthew 5:16: so let your light shine before men, etc.

Third, he exhorts to the use and advancement of the virtues, when he says let us walk honestly as in the day. For these two seem to befit the day. First indeed, honesty. For in the day everyone strives to compose himself, so that he may appear honest before others. But in the night it is not so. Hence it is said in 1 Thessalonians 5:7: those who sleep, sleep in the night; and those who are drunk, are drunk in the night; but we who are of the day, let us be sober. Hence it is said in 1 Corinthians 14:40: let all things be done honestly and according to order among you. Second, man walks in the day, not in the night. Hence it is said in John 11:10: he who walks in the night stumbles. And therefore, because it is day, it is fitting that we walk, that is, that we proceed from good to better. Hence it is said in John 12:35: walk while you have the light.

Then, when he says not in reveling, etc., he expounds what he had said. And first he expounds how the works of darkness — which are the works of sins, of which he enumerates certain ones — are to be cast off. First setting down those things which pertain to the corruption of the concupiscible appetite, whose corruption is intemperance, which concerns the pleasures of touch and of food. Hence, first, he excludes intemperance regarding food, when he says not in reveling. Revelings are called superfluous and overly elaborate eatings. Proverbs 23:20: be not in the feasts of sinners, nor in the revelings of those who bring together flesh to eat. This indeed can be a mortal sin from the fact that, according to the law, someone is condemned to death for this fault. For it is said of the stubborn son in Deuteronomy 21:22: he gives himself over to revelings and to lust and to feasts; the people shall overwhelm him with stones, etc. Now someone is said to give himself over to revelings and feasts, not indeed if he eats magnificently according to the state of his dignity — as is said in Esther 2:18, that Ahasuerus ordered a magnificent banquet to be prepared on account of his union with Esther, in keeping with princely magnificence — but when someone does this beyond what is fitting to his state, and especially if his chief concern is set upon this, like those of whom it is said below, last chapter: such men do not serve Christ the Lord, but their own belly; and Philippians 3:19: whose god is the belly.

Second, he excludes intemperance regarding drink, when he adds and drunkenness, which pertains to the excess of drink beyond the measure that reason sets for man. Ecclesiasticus 31:35: wine was created for gladness, and not for drunkenness. And it is to be considered that drunkenness of its own kind is a mortal sin, namely when a man becomes drunk deliberately, because he thereby seems to prefer the pleasure of wine to the integrity of reason. Hence it is said in Isaiah 5:22: woe to you who are mighty to drink wine, and men of strength to mix strong drink. But if someone becomes drunk apart from his intention, not on purpose — for instance because he is ignorant of the strength of the wine, or because he does not reckon that he will be made drunk by so much drink — it is not a mortal sin, because he is not drunk of himself but accidentally, that is, apart from his intention; which indeed cannot happen in those who are frequently drunk. And therefore Augustine says, in the sermon on Purgatory, that drunkenness is a mortal sin if it is habitual. Hence the Apostle here pointedly says in the plural number: not in revelings and drunkennesses.

Third, he excludes intemperance regarding bodily rest, when he says not in chamberings — that is, not in superfluous sleeping, which he fittingly forbids after reveling and drunkenness, because it follows from them. And there can be mortal sin in this, when, on account of bodily rest and sleep, a man omits what he ought to do and is inclined to do certain evils. Micah 2:1: woe to you who devise what is useless, and work evil in your beds. It can also be that what he says not in your chamberings is referred to the apparatus of lust. Hence it is said in the person of the harlot in Proverbs 7:17: I have sprinkled my bed with myrrh, etc. Genesis 49:4: you have gone up onto your father's bed.

And therefore fittingly, fourth, he excludes intemperance regarding venereal matters, when he adds and impurities, that is, whatsoever venereal acts, which are called impure because they do not guard against that which is most worthy of shame or confusion: both because all the pleasures of touch, of gluttony and of lust, are common to us and to brute beasts — hence whoever gives himself over to them inordinately becomes brutish, Psalm 31:9: be not like the horse and the mule, which have no understanding, etc. — and also because especially in venereal acts the reason of man is entirely absorbed by pleasure, so that man cannot then understand anything, as Aristotle says in the book of the Ethics. Hence also it is said in Hosea 4:11: fornication, and drunkenness, and wine take away the heart. Apocalypse 9:21: they did not repent of the uncleanness and fornication and impurity which they committed.

Then he excludes those things which pertain to the corruption of the irascible appetite, when he says not in contention. This indeed, as Ambrose says, is the impugning of truth with confidence of clamor. Now it can be understood that by this every quarrel is forbidden, not only of words, but also of deeds, which for the most part begins from words. Proverbs 20:3: it is an honor for a man to separate himself from contentions. Now contention is wont to be generated from envy, and therefore he adds and jealousy. Hence it is said in James 3:16: where there is zeal and contention, there is instability and every depraved work.

Second, he expounds how we ought to put on the armor of light, saying but put on the Lord Jesus Christ — in whom, namely, all the virtues were present most abundantly, according to that word of Isaiah 4:1: seven women shall take hold of one man. Now we put on Jesus Christ, first indeed, through the reception of the sacrament. Galatians 3:27: as many of you as have been baptized in Christ have put on Christ. Second, through imitation. Colossians 3:9: stripping off from yourselves the old man with his acts, and putting on the new, etc. And Ephesians 4:24: put on the new man, who is created according to God in righteousness, etc. Now he is said to put on Christ who imitates Christ, because, just as a man is contained by his garment and is seen under its color, so in him who imitates Christ, the works of Christ appear. Through this, then, we are clothed with the armor of light, when we are clothed with Christ.

Third, he expounds what he had said, let us walk honestly as in the day, through what he adds, and make not provision for the flesh in its desires. For in this the beauty of honesty consists: that man should not prefer the flesh to the spirit, but the spirit to the flesh. Above, chapter 8:12: we are debtors, not to the flesh, that we should live according to the flesh. But it is to be noted that he does not say simply make not provision for the flesh, because everyone is bound to take care of the flesh so as to sustain nature, according to that word of Ephesians 5:29: no one has ever hated his own flesh, but nourishes and cherishes it, etc. But he adds in its desires, so that, namely, we should not follow the inordinate desires of the flesh, that is, its concupiscences. Hence it is said in Galatians 5:16: walk in the spirit, and you will not fulfill the desires of the flesh.