Ramban (Nachmanides) on the Torah

AND HE WENT NOT, AS AT OTHER TIMES, TO SEEK FOR ENCHANTMENTS. [This means] that on the previous [two] occasions Balaam acted as an enchanter, and wanted to curse them by means of enchantment, and G-d came to him as if by chance, and not because he [Balaam] had concentrated on [attaining] prophecy, nor because of any superior status that he had achieved [because he was in fact not worthy of prophecy]. But now when he was told, For there is no enchantment in Jacob, neither is there any divination in Israel, whether to do them evil or good, Balaam abandoned his enchantments, and he went not [any more] as at [the] other times to seek them. Instead, he set his face toward the wilderness where Israel was [encamped], so that he would see them and prepare his soul towards them, so that the Divine communication would come unto him, as had happened to him twice [previous], and so indeed it happened to him now. Therefore Scripture states, and ‘the spirit of G-d’ came upon him, for now the hand of the Eternal was upon him as it was upon the prophets,. and just as Moses said, would that all the Eternal’s people were prophets, that the Eternal would put ‘His spirit’ upon them! — and it is further said: ‘The spirit of the Eternal G-d’ is upon me. Therefore Balaam now referred to himself as him who heareth the words of G-d, for he was [for that particular moment] a prophet. Now Rashi commented: “And he set his face toward the wilderness. This is to be understood as the Targum [Onkelos] rendered it.” For the Rabbi’s [Rashi’s] Targum contained [the following text]: “He directed his face toward the wilderness in which the children of Israel had made the [golden] calf.” But this is not found in accurate editions of Onkelos’ Targum, and is [only] written in some of the texts [of Onkelos], which were emended on the basis of the Targum Yerushalmi, (translations) of the Pentateuch: Onkelos, Yonathan, and Yerushalmi. The latter was lost for many centuries, and only parts of it have reached us. Recently, however, a copy of this Jerusalem Targum has been found in its full version, and the text quoted here by Ramban appears in it. but the correct interpretation is as we have explained [above, that Balaam turned to the wilderness in order to receive Divine communication as he had previously, and not because that was the place where they had made the golden calf]. Scripture says [in describing Balaam]: Who seeth the vision of the Almighty, meaning that he now saw through a lucid spectrum, as did the early prophets of whom it is said, And I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob by the Name ‘E-il Sha-dai’ (G-d Almighty). Or it may be that Balaam [only] received [the Divine communication] through a degree [of vision] less than theirs, since ‘the vision of’ the Almighty is not the same as the Almighty. Thus the patriarchs saw by ‘E-il Sha-dai’ (G-d Almighty), [a double expression], whereas Balaam saw only by ‘the vision of’ the Almighty — two degrees lower than them [because only one Name of G-d is used, and he only saw a vision of it]. Therefore Balaam described himself as [one who saw the vision of the Almighty] with opened eyes, which is the degree of prophecy attained by the sons [i.e., the disciples] of the prophets, as it is said, Eternal, open the eyes of these men etc., and in connection with Balaam himself it says, upon his seeing the angel, And the Eternal opened the eyes of Balaam. Now do not [be induced to] think otherwise than that which we have explained in this matter, because of the statement of our Rabbis who said in the Sifre:, 357. “And there hath not arisen a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses. In Israel there hath not arisen, but in the [other] nations of the world there has arisen. And who was he? It was Balaam. But there was a difference between the prophecy of Moses and that of Balaam, because Moses did not know about what G-d was going to speak to him [as will be explained further on], and Balaam knew about what He was going to speak to him, as it is said, The saying of him who heareth the words of G-d. Moses did not know when He would speak to him, as it is said, [then he heard the Voice] speaking unto him, and Balaam knew when He would speak to him, as it is said, and knoweth the knowledge of the Most High. He spoke to Moses while he was standing, as it is said, But as for thee [Moses], ‘stand’ thou here by Me, and to Balaam He spoke when he was fallen down, as it is said, fallen down, yet with opened eyes. [The prophecy of Balaam may be] compared to the cook of a king, who knows what expenses the king has for [the food on] his table.” The explanation of the meaning of this Beraitha. See in Vol. II, p. 133, Note 209, for fuller explanation of this term. is as follows: Scripture stated, And there hath not arisen a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses, and our Rabbis explained that this verse does not come to declare the superiority of Moses’ prophecy over that of the other prophets, since Scripture has already informed us of his superiority over them in two places — in the verse, And I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob by the Name ‘E-il Sha-dai’ (G-d Almighty), but by My Name, the Eternal, was I not known unto them, and in the verse, If there be a prophet among you etc. But now [in speaking of Moses’ prophecy] He did not say about Moses that he knew G-d, as Moses had requested, Show me now Thy ways, that I may know Thee, for the verse there does not say that “he knew G-d face to face,” but says: whom ‘the Eternal’ knew face to face, because it is telling us an explanation of [the nature of] Moses’ prophecy. It is thus saying that to Moses our teacher [the Divine communication] used to come clearly, like one who speaks to his friend face to face, and tells him his words and his meaning until he sees from [the expression on] his face that he understands his words and his intention, and [indicates this] by saying so and by showing on his face that he recognizes what [his friend] wants. Thus the Rabbis [in the Sifre quoted above] said that Balaam had this [degree of prophecy only] when he prophesied in honor of Israel, for he fully understood the words of G-d and His intention and wish in all that was destined to happen to Israel. And even so there was still a difference between the prophecy of Moses and that of Balaam! For Moses did not know what He would tell him, and about what topic or which commandment He would speak to him, but he was ready at any time for the Divine communication, and the Holy One, blessed be He, would command him as He so desired. But Balaam had to concentrate and think about the [particular] matter which he wanted [G-d to speak to him about], and he would retire into solitude and prepare himself spiritually so that the [Divine] Spirit, pp. 228-231, where Ramban discusses at length the subject of angels in relation to prophecy. would come upon him, peradventure the Eternal will come to meet him, as is explicitly stated here [in our verse]. He knew [also] that if the Spirit were to come upon him, it would speak to him [only] about that subject which he had thought of, and not about any other matter. Furthermore, Moses did not know when He would speak to him, because he did not have any fixed time for the [Divine] communication, but whenever Moses wanted it and directed his mind towards [receiving] a Divine communication, He would speak to him; as Moses said, Stay ye, that I may hear what the Eternal will command concerning you, and similarly whenever G-d wanted to command him from the Tent of Meeting, then he [Moses] heard the Voice speaking unto him. But Balaam knew how to determine the [exact] moment when he would have the [Divine] communication, and the Spirit would only rest upon him at that moment. Perhaps this is “the moment” that our Rabbis speak of in Tractate Berachoth and in Tractate Sanhedrin, and at that moment he [thought he] would utter the curse, and it was [only] at that moment that the Spirit would rest upon him, and never at any other time. Similarly the fact that Moses remained standing [during the Divine communication] indicates his superiority, whereas Balaam’s falling down denoted his inferiority, [implying] that he could not endure the prophecy, just as it says, if we hear the voice of the Eternal our G-d any more, then we shall die; Go thou near, and hear., Verse 24. The Rabbis further said [in the Sifre quoted above]: “[The prophecy of Balaam may be] compared to the cook of a king, who knows etc.” [This comparison refers] to the first distinction [between Moses’ prophecy and that of Balaam, namely, that Moses did not know in advance about what G-d would speak to him, whereas Balaam did know], and the intention of the Rabbis thereby is to say that the cook knows what are the expenses of the [upkeep of the] king’s table, but his minister who is trusted in all his house and knows his secrets, does not know the expenses of the household. This example indicates that the Sages’ intention was to say that Balaam himself knew, after concentrating [his intention on receiving a Divine communication], that G-d would tell him [to say]: How shall I curse, whom G-d hath not cursed? and the whole of the blessing [mentioned in the verses], and that afterwards he would hear the communication in [precisely] those words which he had thought of in his heart. This is, as I have mentioned,, 22:5; 31. because he was a diviner, and thus future [events which would befall the people of Israel] would come into his heart [through divination]; but now on account of Israel he also heard the [Divine] utterance about them, and therefore he now prided himself, saying, The saying of him who heareth the words of G-d. Now I have seen this same subject which is taught in the Sifre [quoted above] said in another form in the homiletics of Bamidbar Sinai Rabbah, but there is no need for me to prolong [this subject]. The general idea is that the Sages intended to say that Balaam’s prophecy came to him in words which he clearly understood, and the reason for this was, as the Sages have said, so that the nations of the world should not have an excuse to say: “If we had had a prophet like Moses, we would have served the Holy One, blessed be He.” But the degree of Balaam’s prophecy was [nonetheless] lower than that of the other prophets, because it was [only] by the ‘vision’ of the Almighty, as we have explained. And so also the Rabbis have said in Vayikra Rabbah: “The Holy One, blessed be He, only revealed Himself to the prophets of the [other] nations of the world with a half-communication,’ as it is said: ‘Vayikar Elokim’ (And G-d ‘happened to meet’ Balaam) [instead of saying ‘vayikra’ Elokim — and G-d ‘called’ to Balaam], but to the prophets of Israel [He revealed Himself] with a complete communication, as it is said: ‘Vayikra’ (And He called) unto Moses.” The meaning of [the expression] “a half-communication” you will understand from what we have explained [above].

SHETHUM HA’AYIN.’ The commentators have not found the root of this word [shethum] anywhere else in Scripture. Onkelos translated it: “who sees well,” as [if to say] “open-eyed,” and in the language of the Sages we find: “sufficient time sheyishtom and to close it up” — meaning to say: [enough time to open a hole in the barrel of wine] — and to stop it up again. Perhaps the word [shethum] is a composite one [consisting of the two words shethui mah — “whatever is put” before the eye], from the root ‘shithi’ (My setting) these My signs, on the basis of the root shatham found in the Mishnah, Ramban explains it on the basis of Biblical language. [and here it means] that Balaam is a person [of whom one can use the phrase] “whatever is put” [before him] — because he understands everything that he puts his eye upon.

AND HIS KING SHALL BE HIGHER THAN AGAG. “Their first king [Saul] will conquer Agag king of the Amalekites. Agag is here called by his name before he was born. Similar cases are [the expressions]: to Cyrus, whose right hand I have holden; Behold, a son shall be born unto the house of David, Josiah by name. So also were the names of Isaac, Ishmael,, 16:11. and Solomon [given before they were born]. AND HIS KINGDOM — that is, Jacob’s — SHALL BE EXALTED more and more, because David and his son Solomon will come after him [Saul].” This is Rashi’s language, and he has explained it well. It is possible that every king of the Amalekite people was called Agag, because the first king whom they set up over them was so called [Agag], and thus all his descendants who occupied his throne were called by his name, as are most kings even nowadays, who are called by the name of those who [originally] seized the kingdom. So also Haman the Agagite [was so called] because he was a descendant of that royal family. For it is unlikely that the prophet [Balaam] would cite the name of a wicked man [Agag] even before he was formed in the womb. So also [the name] Gog was one by which all the princes of Magog were called. Thus Balaam added with this third prophecy of his [to his previous two prophecies] by telling Balak that Jacob’s tents are goodly, referring to the period from the time that they were dwellers in tents until they would inherit the land [of Canaan], and the dwellings of Israel after the conquest and division of the Land will also be good, meaning that they will dwell therein in safe habitations. And [Balaam further informed Balak that] Israel’s land will be full of all goodly things, like a watered garden, and like a spring of water, whose waters fail not, and that Israel will conquer Amalek because he attacked him, and will destroy his memory; and that the kingdom of Israel will be even more exalted, because they will have afterwards mighty kings, who will be exceedingly elevated. And he further told him that Israel would eat up his adversaries and break their bones in pieces, referring to their wealth and all their belongings. And [finally, in Verse 9] he told him that Israel would dwell in the Land safely, fearing no people, as a lion, and as a lioness that does not fear any ravenous beast. And so now Balak despaired of [ever fighting] Israel, for [he realized that] if he would fight against him, he would be truly destroyed, for Israel would eat up all his adversaries in the same way that he would destroy Amalek because he attacked him. Therefore Balak now told Balaam to flee to his place, for he has no more desire for him [and his counsel].

[AND BALAAM SAID UNTO BALAK]: ‘SPOKE I NOT ALSO TO THY MESSENGERS ETC.?’ Balaam was now defending himself on the basis of what he had told Balak’s messengers when they came back to him, before he knew what the Eternal would speak unto him more;, we are told that he said to Balak’s servants that he cannot go beyond the word of G-d even if Balak would give him a house full of silver and gold. It is on the basis of these remarks that he is now defending himself. But, as Ramban continues, in actual fact he misled Balak, because he still made out that he was prepared to curse the people even after the Eternal spoke to him further, and he did not tell Balak of G-d’s true message then. but afterwards [i.e., after G-d had told him that he may only go with them, but must not curse the people] he still made out that he was ready to come and curse [the people], until the angel warned him on the road, as I have explained., Verse 20.

COME AND I WILL COUNSEL THEE. Since Balaam wanted to tell [Balak] about the punishment [that would befall] his people, as it is written, and he shall smite through the corners of Moab, therefore he told him, I will counsel thee, that is to say: “I will tell you ‘on the side’ an advice, so that others should not hear it.” “Come and I will counsel thee what you have to do [to revenge yourself upon Israel]. And what was the advice [that he gave him]? [He told him]: ‘The G-d of these [Israelites] hates immorality, etc., [therefore I advise you to seduce Israel into sin by means of the lure of the Moabite women],’ as is narrated in the Chapter Cheilek., meaning: “I will counsel thee how to lead the people astray, and I will tell you what this people shall do …” Ramban explains the phrase “I will counsel thee” differently. You may know that it was Balaam who gave them this counsel [to lead Israel astray] through immorality, for it is said, Behold, these [women] caused the children of Israel, through the counsel of Balaam, [to revolt so as to break faith with the Eternal]. WHAT THIS PEOPLE SHALL DO TO THY PEOPLE. This is an elliptical verse [which means as follows]: ‘I will counsel thee how to corrupt them, and I will [also] tell you what evil they are destined to do to Moab in the end of days.’” This is Rashi’s language. The correct interpretation [of the word i’atzcha, normally translated: I will counsel thee] seems to me to be that Balaam told Balak: “I will tell you the purpose that G-d has planned that this people shall do to thy people in the end of days,” this being similar to the expressions: This is the ‘eitzah’ (purpose) that is ‘y’utzah’ (purposed) upon the whole earth; Hear ye the ‘atzath’ (design) of the Eternal, that He hath ‘ya’atz’ (purposed) against Edom. Balaam said i’atzcha [which literally means “I will give you counsel”], because one who hears counsel, [as Balaam heard G-d’s counsel], is called a no’atz [he with whom counsel is taken]. (with whom took He counsel). And this prophecy [in the following verses], refers to Messianic times, for all of Balaam’s prophecies added [to the previous ones] in [speaking of more] distant events. Thus at first he said that Israel is [now] the portion of the Eternal and His inheritance; in the second prophecy he added that they would [later on] conquer the Land and kill its kings. In the third [prophecy] he saw them dwelling in the Land and increasing and multiplying therein, and that they would appoint a king [Saul] who would defeat Agag, and that the kingdom [of Israel] would be further exalted; for he saw David [whose kingdom] was exalted exceedingly, as it is said, And David perceived that the Eternal had established him king over Israel, and that He hath exalted his kingdom for His people Israel’s sake, that is to say, because He had promised them that their kingdom would be exalted. And now in this fourth prophecy Balaam continued [on the future] and saw the Messianic era; therefore he spoke of it as a very distant event, saying, I see him, but not now; I behold him, but not nigh, [a phrase] which he did not use in his first [three] prophecies. He stated that this is the purpose of G-d which He had planned, to come to pass in the end of days.

He referred to himself now as one who heareth the words of G-d, and as one who seeth the vision of the Almighty, as he had done in the third prophecy, but he added now [the phrase] and knoweth the knowledge of the Most High. Now one who speaks in this manner, saying “I know the knowledge of a certain person” means to say that he understands him, and what is in his heart, [even] those matters which he does not utter verbally, and similarly this [man Balaam] intended to say that he knows and will now say what is in the “mind” [i.e., intention] of G-d the Most High to do in His world at the end of all days. This is similar to that which it says, for the day of vengeance is in My heart, and the Rabbis have said [with reference to that day, that its precise timing is a matter which “His] heart has not divulged to the mouth.” Now Scripture states here, And ‘he took up his parable,’ and said and it does not mention that this was [said] by prophecy, as it says about the [previous] three occasions, for since he said, The saying of him who heareth the words of G-d … who seeth the vision of the A lmighty it is self-understood that the hand of G-d was upon. him, just as at the third time, where it says: and the spirit of G-d came upon him; and he himself said so. (Verse 4) and it says there, and the spirit of G-d came upon him (Verse 2). So here too, in his fourth prophecy, where it says who heareth the words of G-d, who seeth the vision of the Almighty, it was also through the spirit of G-d which came upon him, even though it does not say so expressly.

THERE SHALL STEP FORTH A STAR OUT OF JACOB. Because the Messiah will gather together the dispersed of Israel from all the corners of the earth, Balaam compares him [metaphorically] to a star that passes through the firmament from the ends of heaven, just as it is said about [the Messiah]: and behold, there came with the clouds of heaven, one like unto a son of man etc. Balaam thus said that he saw that at a distant time a star would pass from the ends of heaven, and there would rise out of it the sceptre of a ruler, and he shall smite through the corners of Moab, and break down all the sons of Seth, the son of Adam, who was the father of all the nations., Vol. I, p. 98. He mentioned the corners of Moab in order to inform Balak that his people would not fall into the hand of Israel now, but in the end of days Moab will not be saved from the hand of the ruling king [in Israel]. And the meaning of ‘the corners’ of Moab is that this ruler [in Israel] will break down all the sons of Seth, and they [Moab] will not be saved, even though they are cut off on ‘the corner,’ and have no name among the nations, and will not fight against Israel.

AND EDOM SHALL BE A POSSESSION, SEIR ALSO, EVEN HIS ENEMIES SHALL BE A POSSESSION. The downfall of Edom will be by the hand of the Messiah, because our present exile under the hand of Rome is considered Edom’s [exile], just as it is said: The punishment of thine iniquity is absolved, O daughter of Zion, He will no more carry thee away into captivity; He will punish thine iniquity, O ‘daughter of Edom,’ He will uncover thy sins — for G-d will not punish Edom until the sins of Zion are absolved, at the time when He will no more keep them in captivity. Therefore Balaam mentioned Edom, for it is he who disputes our [right to] kingdom, and about him it has been said, and the one people shall be stronger than the other.). Balaam was thus prophesying that Edom will not completely fall until the time of the end [of the exile] by the hand of ‘the star’ [i.e., the Messiah] who will step forth out of Jacob [as stated in the previous verse]. Seir also, even his enemies shall be a possession. This means that Seir will become a possession of his enemies [i.e., of Israel]. is to be interpreted as to his enemies. Or [the term] his enemies may refer to [Jacob’s enemies, i.e.,] Edom and Seir mentioned [previously in the verse], who are the enemies of Jacob, [and the meaning of the verse would thus be: “Edom, and Seir also, who are the enemies of Israel] will become a possession [of Israel].”

And the meaning of the verse, and he shall destroy the remnant from ‘the’ city, is “from ‘every’ city,” for there will not be left a remnant of any city in the world [i.e. of those belonging to the Roman Empire, here referred to by the names Edom and Seir]. Thus at first [in Verse 17] Balaam said that [the Messiah] will break down all the sons of Seth, and now he is saying that he will not leave any remnant or survivor [of them]. Thus was completed Balaam’s counsel to Balak.

VAYAR’ (AND HE SAW) AMALEK. “He contemplated the punishment of Amalek and he said, Amalek was the first of the nations — he was the first of them all to wage war against Israel. And so did Onkelos translate it. But his end will be to be destroyed by their hands, [as it is said], thou shalt blot out the remembrance of Amalek.” This is Rashi’s language. It is possible that the word vayar is to be understood in its literal meaning [“and he saw,” and not, as Rashi explained it, “and he contemplated”], since Balaam was on the top of Peor, that looketh down upon the desert and so he looked towards the land of Amalek who dwelt in that hill-country., 14:45. Thus he said that Amalek is now ‘the first’ of the nations, meaning that he is considered a leader of the nations, because they were mighty men, and valiant men for the war; for were it not so, it would not have occurred to them to come and attack Israel, and Moses would not have had to choose a select number of men [to fight them], or to pray and lift up his hands [towards heaven] until he was weakened., Verses 11-12. He [Moses] also built an altar and called its name ‘Ado-nai nissi’ (the Eternal is my banner),, Verse 15. because he considered [the defeat of Amalek] a great miracle. Therefore this [man Balaam] said that Amalek is the first of the nations, but his end shall come to destruction more than all the others, as He said, For I will utterly blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven., Verse 14. Similarly, ‘the first’ oils means “the best” of them, which are counted first [in quality]. The same [usage is also found in these expressions]: ‘the first’ [i.e., “the best”] of the devoted things; ‘head’ and chief over them;. ‘the chief’ spices. See Ramban, Vol. II, p. 528.

And the meaning of the verse, And ‘he saw’ the Kenite is also that Balaam [actually] saw their land, for he [the Kenite] dwelt with Amalek. And he took up his parable, and said to them by way of counsel, Firm is thy dwelling-place, and thou puttest thy nest in a rock, meaning: “Make thy dwelling in a firm place, and [set] thy nest in a rock, that is, depart and go away from the Amalekites, lest thou be swept away with them, and put in a firm rock thy dwelling, with Israel,” just as it is said, And the children of the Kenite, Moses’ father-in-law, went up out of the city of palm-trees with the children of Judah etc. And Balaam continued: For if the Kenite will be wasted, meaning to say: “Do not be afraid of coming [to settle] in Israel, because even if you will be wasted together with them, because when the enemy will exile Israel they will destroy all inhabitants from the Land, — ‘ad mah’ (for how long) will Ashur [Assyria] carry thee away captive? He will not hold you captive forever, because you shall be redeemed from his hand together with Israel, but if you will remain with the Amalekites, your end will be to perish with them forever.” Similarly we find [this usage of ad mah in the following verses]: ‘ad mah’ O Eternal, wilt Thou be angry forever?; ‘ad meh’ shall my glory be put to shame?, 4:3. — which [in both cases] means “for how long.” Or [it may be that the phrase ad mah] comes to emphasize the magnitude of something, such as: ‘mah’(how) weak is thy heart!; ‘mah’(how)was thy mother a lioness!, 19:2. and [here it means] to say: “To what extent can the captivity which Assyria will take captive of you reach, and how great [can it be]? It should be of no significance at all to you, because you will not [ultimately] be destroyed, as you would be if you were together with Amalek.” Therefore Balaam continued and took up his parable about Assyria, [saying] that the time of his own land will come for him too, and nobody will be saved from the great and terrible day of the Eternal [which will come] upon all the nations; for ships shall come from the coast of Kittim, which refers to the Romans, and they shall afflict [the] Ashur [who is] mentioned [later on in that verse], and shall afflict Eber, which means Israel. He is thus stating that [the Romans] will oppress both the captors [i.e., the Assyrians] and their captives [the Hebrews]; but he also — the people of Kittim [namely the Romans, as explained above] — shall come to destruction in the end. Thus Balaam completed his words [by foretelling] the destruction of the Kittim, who are the fourth beast which will be destroyed by the hand of the Messiah, as it is said, I beheld even till the beast was slain, and its body destroyed, and it was given to be burned with fire, [and the phrase here] shall come to destruction [is used] because their memory will be completely extirpated. Now it is well-known in the sayings of our Rabbis that the fourth beast which Daniel saw represents Rome who exiled us, and it is this [“beast”] which will be destroyed by the hand of the Messiah. Now do not be astonished at this [explanation we have given above, that Kittim means Rome, and do not refute it] because the third kingdom [mentioned in Daniel] was Greece, as is stated explicitly in the Book of Daniel, and the Kittim are of the seed of Javan [who was the ancestor of the Greeks], as it is said, And the sons of Javan: Elishah, and Tarshish, Kittim, and Dodanim [and therefore one might think that the Romans, who are the fourth beast, i.e., the fourth kingdom, could not be the Kittim]! For it is indeed true [that Kittim are the Greeks, as is stated in the verse quoted above, but nonetheless here it refers to the Romans, who were descendants of the Greeks]. And our Rabbis admit this [that the Greeks and Romans were related], as they have said: “Italy of Greece — this is the great city of Rome,” and it is well-known that the name of the land of which [the city of] Rome forms a part, is called in their books and in their language “Italy.” [Thus it is clear that Greece and Rome are related, and therefore the Kittim, who in the Book of Genesis are described as descendants of the Greeks, refer here in the prophecy of Balaam to Rome.] But the history [of the Kittim] is similar to that of Canaan; for the Jebusite, and the Amorite, and the Girgashite, and the Hivite, they and their children and their fathers, are each of them considered an independent nation, just as it says: the Hittite, and the Girgashite, and the Amorite, and the Canaanite, and the Perizzite, and the Hivite, and the Jebusite, seven nations greater and mightier than thou. The reason for this [i.e., for considering each one a separate nation], is because each one of these [seven] sons [of Canaan] became a mighty nation, and these [individual] nations were called by the names of their ancestors. But the other sons of Canaan, etc. who did not become strong as did their brothers, considered themselves a part of him [i.e., of Canaan]. as one of Canaan’s seven children, since, as we have explained, each of his seven sons founded a nation in his own right. So also the “land of Canaan” is so called because of [Canaan] the father [and not because of that particular son of his who founded the Canaanite people — since all his seven sons lived there with their peoples.]. And the Philistines and Caphtorim, the sons of [Mitzraim] also became separate nations [whereas the other sons of Mitzraim: Ludim, Anamin etc. were known merely as descendants of Mitzraim]., Verse 13. Similarly we find in the families mentioned in the section of Pinchas: [The sons of Menasheh]: of Machir, the family of the Machirites — and Machir begot Gilead; of Gilead, the family of the Gileadites. — descended from Gilead the son of Machir — are counted by Scripture as a separate family, although it first mentioned the family of the Machirites. This is because Gilead increased more than the other sons of Machir, and became a large family in his own right. There are many such cases [in Scripture]. Here too: The sons of Javan: Elishah and Tarshish are considered part of Javan [Greece], and they constitute the third kingdom [in the vision of Daniel], but the Kittim [who were also amongst the sons of Javan] became a mighty nation, and are [therefore] counted as the fourth kingdom [i.e., that of Rome], and it is this kingdom which will continue until the [times of the] Messiah, and it will be destroyed by him. But Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra has confused this matter,, Ibn Ezra suggested that both Greece and Rome should be counted as the “third beast,” and the “fourth beast” will then be the Islamic empires of his times. Ramban totally rejects this interpretation. and introduced into it the kingdom of Ishmael [i.e., the Arabic kingdoms of his times] for their fear was fallen upon him, and he argued: “How can one not count such a great and powerful empire [as the Arabic empire, amongst those seen in Daniel’s visions]!” This argument stems from a lack of knowledge, for each of the four kingdoms which Daniel saw, gained power one after another, and each one prevailed over its predecessor and seized the kingdom [of the world] from it. [Likewise] each one continued the enslavement and exile of Israel during the period that it ruled. Therefore Daniel saw in his dream that the Chaldeans [i.e., the Babylonians] would [be the first] to enslave us [i.e., the Jewish people], and that after them the Persians would seize the kingdom, and would [continue] to enslave us, and after them in their stead would come the Greeks; and after them the Romans would become powerful and seize the kingdom, and subjugate us until the time of the end [of the exile], for their kingdom would only come to an end by the hand of the redeemer [i.e., the Messiah]. Thus [the extent of] our exile is the duration of [rule of] the four kingdoms [Babylon, Persia, Greece, and Rome], and even if there will be other empires in the world contemporaneously with these four kingdoms, Scripture does not count them and Daniel did not see them [in his visions], since he did not have to see them at all in order to know the [date of the final] redemption. And indeed in the days of [the kingdoms of] Persia and Greece, and today also, there are great empires in the world, besides those of Rome and Ishmael, such as the peoples of India, Ethiopia, Rumania, the Tartars, and others. And if so, [Ibn Ezra] should have counted many kingdoms! And [another reason why Ibn Ezra is mistaken is that] it is well-known that it was the Romans who exiled us in the days of Vespasian and Titus, and not the Ishmaelites [the Arabs]; therefore wherever we are, whether under Ishmael, or [anywhere] from India, even unto Ethiopia, we are in the exile of Rome, until her memory will be destroyed and we shall be redeemed from it. Who knows, perhaps the kingdom of Ishmael will still be destroyed before the coming of the Messiah! But the fourth beast is the one which exiled us, as is said with reference to it, I beheld, and the same horn made war with the saints and prevailed against them. We shall remain in this exile until the coming of the Messiah, as it is written, until the Ancient of days came, and judgment was given for the saints of the Most High; and the time came, and the saints possessed the kingdom., Verse 22. “The Ancient of Days” is a synonym for G-d the Eternal. And anyone who understands the visions of Daniel will find this interpretation clearly indicated there. For in the second vision Daniel saw the pushing ram,, 8:4. which was explained to him as [representing the] kingdom of Persia,, Verse 20. and the rough he-goat is the king of Greece, and the great horn is the first king, Verse 21. Alexander [of Greece], who prevailed over Persia. And when he was strong, his kingdom was broken,, Verse 8. in the place whereof four stood up,, Verse 22. these being his four generals [Ptolemy, Seleucus, Antigonus and Lysimachus] who reigned in his stead after his death. And Scripture mentions: And ‘out of one of them’ came forth a little horn, which waxed exceeding great, toward the south, and toward the east, and toward the beauteous Land, Verse 9. and it says concerning it, Yea, it magnified itself, even to the prince of the host, and from him the continual burnt-offering was taken away., Verse 11. Thus it clearly refers to the kingdom of Rome, which came “out of Greece” since [the Kittim referred to by Balaam, which means, as explained above, Rome] were of his sons [i.e., Javan’s, who is the ancestor of the Greeks], and it is that kingdom [Rome] which removed the continual burnt-offering, Verse 11. [through destroying the Second Temple]. Therefore [Daniel] calls both of them [Greece and Rome] one beast, this being the rough he-goat,, Verse 21. one of whose [four] horns waxed great, Verse 9. and removed the continual burnt-offering., Verse 11. There are further such proofs there [in the Book of Daniel, that the fourth kingdom means the Romans]; however the tradition of our Rabbis, of blessed memory, [that the “fourth beast” is the kingdom of Rome] is true [in its own right] and needs no other support.