Commentary on Galatians (Super Epistolam B. Pauli ad Galatas Lectura)

Above, the Apostle refuted the vanity and inconstancy of the Galatians by the authority of the evangelical teaching, showing that his teaching was authenticated by the other apostles; but here he shows this same thing by reason and authority, namely, that the precepts of the law are not to be observed. And this in two ways. First, from the insufficiency of the law; second, from the dignity of those who have been converted to Christ; and this in chapter 4, where he says: "Now I say: as long as," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he prefaces a rebuke; second he pursues his proof, where he says: "This only I wish from you," etc. Concerning the first he does two things: first he rebukes them, showing their foolishness; second he assigns the reason for the rebuke, where he says: "before whose eyes," etc.

First, therefore, he rebukes them for their foolishness, calling them senseless. Hence he says: "O senseless," etc. Now one is properly called senseless who lacks sense. But spiritual sense is the knowledge of truth; therefore whoever lacks truth is properly called senseless. Matthew 5: "And you are without understanding." Wisdom 5:4: "we senseless ones, their life," etc. But on the contrary, it is said in Matthew 5:22: "Whoever shall say to his brother: Fool," etc.; but "fool" is the same as "senseless"; therefore the Apostle is guilty of the fire of Gehenna. But it must be said, as Augustine says, that this is to be understood of one who says it without cause, and with the intention of reviling; but the Apostle said it for a cause, and with the intention of correcting. Hence it is said in the Gloss: he says this out of sorrow.

Second, when he says "Who has bewitched you," etc., he shows the manner in which they had been made senseless. Here it must first be noted that one becomes senseless in many ways. Either because no truth is proposed to him which he could know; or because, although it is proposed to him, he never accepts it; or because he abandons the truth proposed and accepted, withdrawing from the way of truth; and such were these Galatians, who, abandoning the truth of the faith which they had received, refused the truth proposed to them. Above, 1:6: "I wonder that you are so soon," etc. And therefore he reproves in them this degree of senselessness, saying: "Who has bewitched you," etc.

Now to know what fascination is, it must be known that according to the Gloss, fascination is properly called a deluding of the sense, which is wont to come about through magical arts; as, for instance, when it makes a man appear to the sight of others as a lion, or horned, and the like. And this can also happen through demons, who have the power of moving phantasms, and of tracing them back to the principles of the senses, by altering the senses themselves. And according to this understanding, the Apostle quite properly says: "Who has bewitched you?" As if to say: you are like a man who has been deluded, who takes manifest things otherwise than they are in the truth of the matter; because, namely, you have been deluded by deceptions and sophisms, "not to obey the truth," that is, you do not see the manifest truth received by you, nor do you receive it by obeying. Wisdom 4:12: "The bewitching of vanity obscures good things." Isaiah 5:20: "Woe to them that call good evil," etc.

Fascination is taken in another way, according as someone is harmed by a malevolent gaze, and this especially in old women, who by a burning look and an envious gaze bewitch children, who from this become sick and vomit their food. Wishing to assign the cause of this, Avicenna, in his book On the Soul, says that bodily matter obeys intellectual substance more than it obeys the active and passive qualities in nature. And therefore he holds that, at the apprehension of intellectual substances (which he calls souls or movers of the spheres), many things come about outside the order of the motion of the heavens and of all corporeal agents. In the same way he says that when a holy soul has been purified from affections for earthly things, and from carnal vices, it approaches the likeness of the aforesaid substances, and nature obeys it. And hence it is that some holy men work certain wonders outside the course of nature; and likewise, because the soul of someone defiled by carnal passions has a strong apprehension in malice, nature obeys it for the transmutation of matter, especially in those in whom the matter is apt for this, as happens in tender children. And thus it happens, according to him, that from the strong apprehension of old women, a child is changed into a state of malice and is bewitched.

Now this position seems true enough according to the opinion of Avicenna. For he himself held that all corporeal forms in these lower things are infused by separate incorporeal substances, and that natural agents contribute to this only as disposing causes. But this indeed is disproved by the Philosopher. For an agent must be like its subject. Now it is not form alone that comes to be, nor matter alone, but the composite of matter and form. Therefore that which acts toward the being of corporeal things must have matter and form. Hence he says that nothing can transmute matter and form except that which has matter and form, and this indeed either virtually, as God, who is the author of form and matter; or actually, as a corporeal agent. And therefore corporeal matter, as regards forms of this kind, obeys neither angels nor any pure creature at a nod, but God alone, as Augustine says. Hence what Avicenna says about fascination of this kind is not true.

And therefore it must be said that, at the imagination or apprehension of a man, when it is strong, the sense, or the sensitive appetite, is changed; and this change is not without an alteration of the body and of the spirits of the body, just as we see that at the apprehension of something delightful the sensitive appetite is moved to concupiscence, and from this the body grows warm. Likewise, from the apprehension of something fearful, it grows cold. Now the alteration of the spirits especially infects the eyes, which, once infected, infect a thing by their gaze, as is evident in a clean mirror, which is tainted by the gaze of a menstruating woman. So, then, because old women are obstinate and hardened in malice, from their strong apprehension the sensitive appetite is altered, and from this, as has been said, the infection passes especially from the veins to the eyes, and from the eyes to the thing looked upon. Hence, because the flesh of a child is soft, it is infected and bewitched by their envious gaze. And sometimes, indeed, demons work toward this effect.

He says, then: "Who has bewitched you not to obey the truth?" As if to say: you at one time obeyed the truth of the faith, but now you do not; therefore you are like children who, infected by some envious gaze, vomit the food you had received.

Now he assigns the reason for the rebuke, saying: "before whose eyes," etc. This can be read in three ways.

In one way, according to Jerome, so that it corresponds to the first understanding of fascination; as if to say: I say you are bewitched, because "before whose eyes," etc., that is, the proscription of Christ, who was condemned to death, was so manifest to you that it was as if it had been before your eyes, and "crucified among you," that is, the crucifixion of Jesus Christ was in your understandings, so that you knew how it had been done; hence, if you do not see it now, nor obey it, this happens because you have been deluded and bewitched. Against which it is said in the last chapter of the Song of Songs: "Put me as a seal upon your heart," etc.

In another way, according to Augustine; as if to say: you are rightly bewitched, because the truth which you received, namely Christ, through faith, in your hearts, you vomit up like children. And this because "before your eyes," that is, in your presence, "Jesus Christ was proscribed," that is, he is expelled and cast out of his inheritance, which ought to be grievous to you; because he whom you ought not to suffer to be proscribed and expelled by others has been proscribed in you, that is, he has lost his inheritance in you, that is, in your very selves. And then what follows, namely "crucified," ought to be read with weight and a show of grief, because he added this so that they might consider at what price Christ had bought the possession which he was losing in them, and might be moved the more by this. As if to say: Christ has been proscribed in you, namely, he who was crucified, that is, who acquired this inheritance by his own cross and blood. 1 Corinthians 6:20: "For you are bought with a great price," etc. 1 Peter 1:18: "Not with corruptible things, gold or silver," etc.

In a third way, according to Ambrose, as if to say: you are truly bewitched, "before whose eyes," that is, in whose estimation, namely according to your judgment, "Jesus Christ was proscribed," that is, condemned, not saving others. And "crucified among you," that is, according as you understand it, that is, he only died, but did not justify others, although it is said of him, 2 Corinthians, last chapter, that "if he died from our weakness, yet he lives from the power of God."

It can also, in a fourth way, be expounded according to the Gloss, so that by this the Apostle designates the gravity of their fault, because in this — that, observing the law, they abandon Christ — they were sinning in a certain way equally with Pilate, who proscribed Christ, that is, condemned him. So that, while believing Christ insufficient for saving, they are like the crucifiers of Christ in sinning, who hung him upon the wood, condemning and afflicting him with a most shameful death. The equality, however, is to be taken on the part of him against whom the sin is committed, because the Galatians were sinning against Christ, just as Pilate and the crucifiers of Christ.

Having set forth the rebuke, the Apostle consequently proceeds to show the insufficiency of the law and the power of faith. And first he shows the insufficiency of the law; second, he raises a question and solves it, where he says "What then is the law," etc. And concerning the first he does two things. First, he proves the defect and insufficiency of the law through the things which they themselves had experienced; second, through authorities and arguments, where he says "as it is written." Concerning the first he does two things: for first he proves his proposition, taking the experience from their own side; second he proves the same thing, taking the experience from the side of the Apostle himself, where he says "He therefore who gives to you," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows the gift which they had received; second, the defect into which they had fallen, where he says "Are you so foolish," etc.

Now he shows the gift which they had received by asking them whence they had received it. Hence, presupposing the gift received, questioning, he asks them, saying: although you are bewitched and foolish, nevertheless you have not been so deluded that you cannot teach me one thing which is very manifest. And therefore I wish to learn only this from you, because this alone suffices to prove what I intend: this, I say, is that it is established that you received the Holy Spirit; I ask therefore whether you received him from the works of the law, or from the hearing of faith?

For understanding this, it should be known that in the primitive Church, by divine disposition, in order that the faith of Christ might be promoted and grow, immediately after the preaching of the faith by the apostles, manifest signs of the Holy Spirit came upon those who heard. Hence it is said of Peter in Acts 10:44: "While Peter was still speaking these words, the Holy Spirit fell," etc. The Galatians themselves also had manifestly received the Holy Spirit at Paul's preaching. The Apostle therefore asks them whence they had the Holy Spirit. Now it is established that it was not through the works of the law, since, being Gentiles, before the reception of the Holy Spirit they did not have the law; therefore they had the Holy Spirit, that is, the gifts of the Holy Spirit, from the hearing of faith. Romans 8:15: "You have not received the spirit of bondage again in fear" — the spirit, namely, which was given in the law (whence also the law was given with trembling) — "but you have received the spirit of adoption of sons," which is given through faith, which is from hearing, as is said in Romans 10:17.

If therefore the power of faith could accomplish this, it is in vain to seek something else by which we might be saved, since it is much more difficult to make a just man out of an unjust one, than to preserve a just man in justice. If therefore faith, without the law, had made the unjust Galatians just, there is no doubt that it could, without the law, preserve them in justice. Great, therefore, was the gift which they had received through faith.

Consequently, when he says "Are you so foolish," etc., he shows the defect into which they had fallen. And the Apostle aggravates a twofold defect in them: namely, as to the gifts which they had received from Christ, and as to the evils which they had endured for him, where he says "Have you suffered so many things," etc.

Concerning the first, it should be known that these Galatians, deserting what was great, namely the Holy Spirit, clung to what was lesser, namely the carnal observance of the law, and this is foolish. And therefore he says "Are you so foolish," to the point that, whereas you began by the instinct of the Holy Spirit — that is, you had the beginning of your perfection from the Holy Spirit — now, while you are more perfect, you are consummated by the flesh, that is, you seek to be preserved through the carnal observances of the law, from which not even the beginning of justice can be had? John 6:64: "The flesh profits nothing," etc. And thus you pervert the order, because the way of perfection is to tend from the imperfect toward the perfect. You, however, because you do the opposite, are foolish. Ecclesiasticus 27:12: "A holy man remains in wisdom like the sun; a fool changes like the moon." These men are like those who begin to serve God with fervor of spirit, and afterward fail into the flesh; they are also likened to the statue of Nebuchadnezzar, whose head was of gold and whose feet were of clay, Daniel 2:32. And therefore it is said in Romans 8:8: "Those who are in the flesh cannot please God." And below, 6:8: "He who sows in the flesh shall reap corruption from the flesh."

Consequently, when he says "Have you suffered so many things," etc., he aggravates their defect as to the evils which they endured for Christ. For those who receive something without labor guard it less dearly; but it is foolish to hold cheap, and not to guard, that which is acquired with labor. But these men received the Holy Spirit with labor and great tribulation, which they suffered from their fellow tribesmen on account of the faith. And therefore he says "Have you suffered so many things in vain," as if to say: do not despise so great a gift which you received with labor; otherwise you have suffered those things "in vain," that is, without benefit — since you endured these things in order that you might arrive at eternal life. Romans 5:3: "Tribulation works patience, and patience, proof, and proof, hope," etc. Hence, if you close off for yourselves the entrance to eternal life, deserting the faith, seeking to be preserved by carnal observances, you have suffered "in vain," that is, uselessly.

And this I say, "if indeed it be in vain." He says this for the reason that it was in their power to repent, if they wished, as long as they lived. From this, moreover, it is gathered that mortified works come to life again. Wisdom 3:11: "Their labors are without fruit," etc. Galatians 4:11: "But I fear lest I have labored in vain," etc. But if it be understood of the wicked who do not repent, it can be said that they suffer without a cause that confers, namely, eternal life.

Consequently, when he says "He therefore who gives to you," etc., he proves his proposition, taking the experience from the side of the Apostle. For they could say: it is true that we received the Holy Spirit from the hearing of faith, but on account of the devotion which we had toward the law, we accepted the faith which you preached. And therefore he says: I do not care whatever may be on your part; nevertheless, that which I did, giving to you through my ministry the Holy Spirit, who works among you mighty deeds — that is, miracles among you — do I do this, then, from the works of the law, or from the works of faith? Not at all from the works of the law, but from faith.

But can anyone give the Holy Spirit? For Augustine, in Book XV On the Trinity, says that no mere man can give the Holy Spirit, nor did the apostles themselves give him, but they laid hands upon men, and they received the Holy Spirit. What then is it that the Apostle, speaking of himself, says here, "He who gives to you the Holy Spirit"?

I respond. It must be said that in the giving of the Holy Spirit three things occur, related in order: namely, the Holy Spirit indwelling; the gift of grace and charity together with the other habits; and the sacrament of the new law, by whose ministry he is given. And thus he can be given by certain persons in three ways.

For he is given by someone as having authority with respect to the three aforesaid things, namely with respect to the indwelling Holy Spirit, with respect to the gift, and with respect to the sacrament; and in this way the Holy Spirit is given by the Father and the Son alone, insofar as they have authority over him — not, indeed, of lordship, but of origin, since he proceeds from both. But as to grace or the gift, and as to the sacraments, the Holy Spirit also gives himself, insofar as the giving implies the causality of the Holy Spirit with respect to his own gifts; for, as the Apostle says in 1 Corinthians 12:11, "he himself divides to each as he wills." But insofar as authority is implied in the giving, the Holy Spirit cannot properly be said to give himself. But as to the sacrament, which is given through the ministry of the ministers of the Church, it can be said that the saints, through the ministry of the sacraments, give the Holy Spirit. And it is in this way that the Apostle speaks here, according to what is touched upon in the Gloss; nevertheless, this manner of speaking is not customary, nor is it to be extended further.

The Gloss also says that working miracles is attributed to faith, because from the fact that one believes things which are above nature, one works above nature; and because the apostles preached a faith which contained certain things exceeding reason, it was therefore necessary to bring forward some testimonies to their credibility, that they had been sent by God — which exceeds reason. Hence Christ gave them his sign to show this.

Now there is a twofold sign of Christ. One is that he is Lord of all; hence it is said in Psalm 144:13: "Your kingdom is a kingdom of all ages," etc. The other is that he is the justifier and savior, according to Acts 4:12: "There is no other name under heaven given to men," etc.

He gave them, therefore, two signs: one is that they should work miracles, by which they might show that they had been sent by God, the Lord of every creature. Luke 10: "He gave them power and virtue over all devils," etc. The other, that they should give the Holy Spirit through their ministry, by which they might show that they had been sent by the Savior of all. Acts 8:17: "Then they laid hands upon them," etc., and "then, when Paul had laid hands upon them, the Holy Spirit came upon them," etc. And concerning these two ways it is said in Hebrews 2:4: "God bearing witness with signs, and wonders, and various mighty deeds, and distributions of the Holy Spirit, according to his own will."

Above, the Apostle proved by experience the power of faith and the insufficiency of the law; but here he proves the same thing through authorities and reasons. And first he proves the power of faith in justifying; second, in this he shows the defect of the law, at the place "For as many as are of the works of the law," etc. The first, however, he proves using a certain syllogism. Hence concerning this he does three things. First he shows the minor premise; second, the major, at the place "But Scripture, foreseeing," etc.; third, he infers the conclusion, at the place "Therefore they who are of faith," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he proposes a certain authority, from which he elicits the minor; second, he concludes it, at the place "Know ye therefore," etc.

He says therefore: truly justice and the Holy Spirit are from faith, as it is written, Genesis 15:6, and it is quoted in Romans 4:3, that "Abraham believed God," etc. Where it must be noted that justice consists in the rendering of what is due; but man owes something to God, and something to himself, and something to his neighbor. But that he owes something to himself and to his neighbor, this is on account of God. Therefore the highest justice is to render to God what is His. For if you render to yourself or to your neighbor what you owe, and you do not do this on account of God, you are more perverse than just, since you place your end in man. But whatever is in man is God's — both the intellect and the will and the body itself — yet nonetheless in a certain order, because lower things are ordered to higher things, and exterior things to interior things, namely to the good of the soul; but the highest thing in man is the mind. And therefore the first thing in the justice of man is that the mind of man be subjected to God, and this comes about through faith. 2 Corinthians 10:3: "bringing into captivity every understanding unto the obedience of Christ." Thus therefore it must be said in all things, that God is the first principle in justice, and he who gives to God — namely, the highest thing that is in himself — by subjecting the mind to Him, is perfectly just. Romans 8:14: "they who are led by the Spirit of God, they are the sons of God." And therefore he says "Abraham believed God," that is, he subjected his mind to God through faith. Ecclesiasticus 2:6: "Believe God, and he will recover thee," etc., and below, "ye that fear the Lord, believe him," etc. And "it was reputed to him unto justice," that is, the very act of believing, and faith itself, was for him — and is for all others — a sufficient cause of justice; and that it is reputed to him unto justice is, outwardly, from men, but inwardly it is given by God, who justifies those who have faith, through charity working, by remitting their sins to them.

From this authority, however, he concludes the minor proposition, saying "Know ye therefore," etc., as if to say: from this someone is called the son of another, that he imitates his works; if therefore you are sons of Abraham, do the works of Abraham, John 8:39. But Abraham did not seek to be justified through circumcision, but through faith; therefore also those who seek to be justified through faith are sons of Abraham. And this is what he says: because Abraham is just from faith, by this — that he believed God, and it was reputed to him unto justice — therefore know ye, that they who are of faith, that is, who believe by faith that they are justified and saved, these are sons of Abraham, namely by imitation and instruction. Romans 9:8: "they who are the sons of the promise are accounted in the seed," etc. Luke 19:9, it is said to Zacchaeus: "This day salvation from God has come to this house, because he also is a son of Abraham," etc. And Matthew 3:9: "God is able of these stones" — that is, of the gentiles — "to raise up sons of Abraham," inasmuch, namely, as he makes them believers.

Consequently, when he says "But Scripture, foreseeing," etc., he sets out the major premise, which is namely, that it was foretold to Abraham that in his seed all nations would be blessed. And this is what he says, "But Scripture, foreseeing," introducing God speaking to Abraham, says — Genesis 12:3 — that God foretold to Abraham that "in thee," that is, in those who, in likeness to you, will be your sons through the imitation of faith, "all nations shall be blessed." Matthew 8:11: "Many shall come from the east and the west," etc.

Consequently, when he says "Therefore they who are of faith," etc., he infers the conclusion from the premises. Hence the argument can be formed thus: God the Father announced to Abraham that in his seed all nations would be blessed; but those who seek to be justified through faith are sons of Abraham; therefore they who are of faith, that is, who seek to be justified through faith, shall be blessed with the faithful — that is, believing — Abraham.

Above, the Apostle showed the power of faith; here he consequently shows the defect of the law. And first through the authority of the law; second through human custom, where he says, "Brethren, I speak according to man," etc. Concerning the first he does three things. First he shows the harm that occasionally followed from the law; second, the insufficiency of the law to remove that very harm, where he says, "But that in the law," etc.; third, the sufficiency of Christ, by which that harm was removed, where he says, "But Christ has redeemed us," etc.

Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth what he intends; second he proves his proposition, where he says, "For it is written: Cursed," etc. He says therefore: "For as many as," etc. For since he had said that those who are of faith will be blessed, since they are sons of Abraham, someone could say that they are blessed on account of the works of the law as well as on account of faith; and therefore, excluding this, he says: "as many as are of the works of the law are under a curse."

But on the contrary: the ancient fathers were in the works of the law; therefore they are cursed, and consequently damned — which is the error of Mani. Therefore this must be soundly understood. And it must be noted that the Apostle does not say: "as many as keep the works of the law are under a curse," because this would be false for the time of the law; but he says "as many as are of the works of the law," etc., that is, as many as trust in the works of the law and think themselves to be justified through them, are under a curse. For it is one thing to be in the works of the law, and another to keep the law; for this latter is to fulfill the law, and he who fulfills it is not under a curse. But to be in the works of the law is to trust in them and place one's hope in them. And those who are in them in this way are under a curse, namely of transgression — which indeed the law does not cause, since concupiscence does not come from the law, but rather knowledge of sin, to which we are prone through concupiscence, which is prohibited by the law. Insofar, therefore, as the law produces knowledge of sin, and does not furnish help against sin, they are said to be under a curse, since they are unable to escape it through the works themselves.

Now there are certain works of the law that are ceremonial, which consisted in observances. Other works are those that pertain to morals, concerning which there are the moral commandments. Hence, according to the Gloss, what is said here — "as many as are of the works of the law," etc. — is to be understood of the ceremonial works, and not of the moral ones. Or it must be said that the Apostle here speaks of all works, both ceremonial and moral. For works are not the cause of someone being just before God, but rather they are the executions and manifestations of justice. For no one is justified before God through works, but through the habit of faith — not indeed an acquired habit, but an infused one. And therefore whoever seeks to be justified from works is under a curse, because through them sins are not removed, nor is anyone justified as regards God, but through the habit of faith formed by charity. Hebrews 11:39: "All these by the testimony of faith," etc.

Consequently, when he says "For it is written," etc., he proves his proposition, and this is shown, first, according to the Gloss, by the fact that no one can keep the law in the way that the law commands, Deuteronomy 28:15, that everyone who does not remain in all the things that are written in the book of the law, so as to do them — that is, whoever does not fulfill the whole law — is cursed. But to fulfill the whole law is impossible, as it is said in Acts 15:10: "Why do you tempt, to impose a yoke, which neither we nor our fathers were able to bear?" Therefore no one is of the works of the law without being cursed.

It can also be taken that what is said, "For it is written," etc., is not as a proof of the proposition, but so that its exposition may be shown; as if he were saying: I say that they are under the curse, namely under that curse of which the law speaks when it is written: "Cursed is everyone," etc.: so that it be understood concerning sin, that is, concerning the curse. For the law commands that good things be done or evil things avoided, and by commanding it obligates, but it does not give the power of obeying. And therefore it says "cursed," as if joined to evil, "everyone," excepting no one, because, as it is said in Acts 10:34, there is no acceptance of persons with God.

"Who does not remain unto the end." Matthew 24:13: "He who perseveres unto the end." "In all things" — not in certain ones only, because, as it is said in James 2:10, whoever keeps the whole law, but offends in one point, has become guilty of all. "Which are written in the book of the law, so as to do them" — not only that he believe or merely will it, but that he fulfill it in deed. Psalm 110:10: "Good understanding to all who do it."

But the holy fathers, even though they were in the works of the law, were nevertheless saved in the faith of him who was to come, trusting in his grace, and fulfilling the law at least spiritually. For Moses, as is said in the Gloss, indeed commanded many things that no one could fulfill, in order to tame the pride of the Jews who said: "It is not the one to fulfill it who is lacking, but the one to command it."

But here there is a question about what is said, "cursed is everyone," etc. For it is said in Romans 12:14: "Bless, and do not curse." I respond. It must be said that to curse is nothing other than to speak evil; I can, therefore, say that good is evil, and evil is good, and again, that good is good, and evil is evil. And the Apostle indeed forbids the first, saying: "do not curse," that is, do not say that good is evil, and vice versa; but the second is permitted, and therefore when we censure sin, we do indeed curse, but not by calling good evil — rather we say that evil is evil. And therefore it is permitted to curse the sinner, that is, to say that he is given over to evil or that he is evil.

Consequently, when he says "But that in the law," etc., he shows the insufficiency of the law, which was not able to snatch anyone away from that curse, from the fact that it could not justify. To show this, he uses a certain syllogism in the second figure, and it is this: justice is from faith; but the law is not from faith; therefore the law cannot justify. Concerning this, then, he first states the conclusion, when he says "But that in the law no one is justified"; second, the major premise, when he says "because the just man lives by faith"; third, the minor premise, when he says "but the law is not of faith."

He says therefore: I say that through the law a curse was introduced, and yet the law does not deliver from that curse, because it is manifest that no one is justified in the law before God, that is, through the works of the law. Concerning this it must be understood that those who denied the Old Testament took an occasion from this saying. And therefore it must be said that no one is justified in the law, that is, through the law. For through it, indeed, knowledge of sin was had, as is said in Romans 5, but justification was not had through it. Romans 3:20: "By the works of the law no one shall be justified."

But on the contrary, it is said in James 2:21: "Was not Abraham justified by works?" I respond. It must be said that "to justify" can be taken in two ways: either as regards the execution and manifestation of justice, and in this way a man is justified, that is, shown to be just, from the works performed. Or as regards the infused habit of justice, and in this way no one is justified from works, since the habit of justice by which a man is justified before God is not acquired, but infused through the grace of faith. And therefore the Apostle pointedly says "before God," because the justice that is before God is in the interior heart; but the justice that is from works, that is, that manifests the just man, is before men. And in this way the Apostle takes "before God." Romans 2:13: "For not the hearers, but the doers," etc. Romans 4:2: "If Abraham was justified by works, he has glory, but not before God," etc. Thus, therefore, the conclusion of the argument is clear, namely that the law cannot justify.

Consequently, when he says "because the just," etc., he states the major premise, which is from the authority of Scripture, Habakkuk 2:4, and it is also introduced in Romans 1:17 and Hebrews 10:38. Concerning this it must be noted that in man there is a twofold life, namely the life of nature and the life of justice. The life of nature indeed is through the soul; hence, when the soul departs from the body, the body remains dead. But the life of justice is through God dwelling in us through faith. And therefore the first thing by which God is in the soul of man is faith. Hebrews 11:6: "He who comes to God must believe." Ephesians 3:17: "That Christ may dwell through faith," etc.

And thus we say that in the soul the first indications of life appear in the works of the vegetative soul, because it is the vegetative soul that first comes to the generated animal, as the Philosopher says. So, because the first principle by which God is in us is faith, therefore faith is called the principle of living. And this is what is said here: "My just one lives by faith." And it must be understood of faith working through love.

But the minor premise is stated where he says "but the law is not," etc. And first the minor itself is stated; second it is proved, where he says "but he who shall have done," etc. He says therefore, "the law is not of faith." But on the contrary, the law commands one to believe that God is one, and this pertains to faith; therefore the law had faith. But that God is one is commanded in Deuteronomy 6: "Hear, O Israel, the Lord your God," etc.

I respond. It must be said that here he speaks of the observances of the commandments of the law, according as the law consists in ceremonial mandates and precepts, and he says that such a law is not of faith. For faith, as is said in Hebrews 11:1, is the substance of things to be hoped for, the evidence of things not appearing. And therefore he properly fulfills the commandment concerning faith who does not hope thereby to obtain any present and visible things, but invisible and eternal goods. The law, therefore, because it promised earthly and present things, as it is said in Isaiah 1:19: "If you be willing and will hearken to me, you shall eat the good things of the land," is therefore not of faith, but rather of cupidity, or of fear, especially according to those who kept the law carnally. Some, however, lived spiritually in the law, but this was not from it, but from faith in the mediator.

And that the law is not of faith he proves when he says "but he who shall have done them," that is, the works of the law, "shall live in them," namely, in the present life, that is, he will be immune from temporal death, and will be preserved in the present life. Or otherwise: I say that the law is not of faith, and this is clear, because "he who shall have done," etc.; as if he were saying: the precepts of the law are not about things to be believed, but about things to be done, although it announces something to be believed. And therefore its force is not from faith, but from works; and this he proves, because when the Lord wished to confirm it, he did not say: "he who shall have believed," but: "he who shall have done them shall live in them." But the new law is of faith. Mark, last chapter: "he who shall have believed and been baptized," etc.

The law, however, is a certain thing figured and made from faith, and therefore the old law is compared to the new law, as the works of nature to the works of intellect. For in the very works of nature certain works of intellect appear, not because natural things understand, but because they are moved and ordered by an intellect so that they may attain their end. So also in the old law certain things are contained that belong to faith, not that the Jews possessed them as things of faith, but they possessed them only in a figure of the faith of Christ, and as an attestation, by the power of which faith the just were saved.

Having set forth the harm inflicted by the law, and the law's defect in being unable to rescue man from it, here the Apostle consequently shows the power of Christ freeing us from that very harm. And first he shows how through Christ we are freed from that harm; second, how we also acquire help from Christ beyond this, at the place "that upon the Gentiles," etc. Concerning the first he does three things. For first he sets forth the authority of the liberation; second, the manner of the liberation, at the place "made for us," etc.; third, the prophetic testimony, at the place "for it is written," etc.

He says therefore first: whoever kept the works of the law were under the curse, as has been said, and they could not be freed through the law. Therefore it was necessary to have someone who would free us, and this one was Christ. And therefore he says "Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law," etc. Romans 8:3: "what was impossible for the law," etc., "God sending his own Son," namely Christ, etc. "He redeemed," I say, "us," namely the Jews, with his precious blood, Apocalypse 5:9: "you have redeemed us in blood," etc. Isaiah 43:1: "Fear not, for I have redeemed you," etc. "From the curse of the law," that is, from guilt and punishment. Below, chapter 4, verse 5: "that he might redeem those who were under the law"; Hosea 13:14: "I will redeem them from death."

He sets forth the manner of the liberation when he says "made a curse for us." Here it should be noted that a curse is what is called an evil. And according to a twofold evil, a twofold curse can be spoken of, namely the curse of guilt and the curse of punishment. And in both ways this text can be read: in two ways he was made a curse for us.

And first indeed concerning the evil of guilt. For Christ redeemed us from the evil of guilt. Hence just as he redeemed us from death by dying, so he redeemed us from the curse of guilt by being made a curse, namely of guilt — not indeed that there was any sin in him, "who committed no sin, nor deceit," etc., as is said in 1 Peter 2:22, but according to the opinion of men, and especially of the Jews who considered him a sinner. John 18:30: "If he were not an evildoer, we would not have handed him over to you." And therefore concerning this it is said in 2 Corinthians 5:21: "Him who knew no sin, he made to be sin for us." But he says "a curse," not "cursed," in order to show that the Jews considered him utterly wicked. Hence it is said in John 9:16: "This man is not from God," etc.; and John 10:33: "It is not for a good work that we stone you, but for sin and for blasphemy." And therefore he says "he was made a curse for us," in the abstract; as if to say: he was made the very curse itself.

Second, it is explained concerning the evil of punishment. For Christ freed us from punishment by sustaining our punishment and death, which indeed came upon us from the very curse of sin. Insofar, therefore, as he took up this curse of sin by dying for us, he is said to have been made a curse for us. And it is similar to what is said in Romans 8:3: "God sent his Son in the likeness of sinful flesh," that is, of mortal flesh. "Him who knew no sin," namely Christ, who committed no sin — God, namely the Father, "made to be sin for us," 2 Corinthians 5:21, that is, made him suffer the punishment of sin, namely when he was offered up on account of our sins.

Consequently he sets forth the testimony of Scripture when he says "for it is written: cursed is everyone," etc. And this is Deuteronomy 27. Here it should be known, according to the Gloss, that in Deuteronomy, whence this word is taken, both in our texts and in the Hebrew codices it is found: "cursed by God is everyone," etc.; but that phrase, namely "by God," is not found in the ancient Hebrew volumes, whence it is believed that it was added by the Jews after the Lord's passion, for the disgrace of Christ.

Now the authority can be explained concerning the evil of punishment and the evil of guilt. Concerning the evil of guilt thus: "cursed is everyone who hangs on a tree," not because he hangs on a tree, but on account of the guilt for which he hangs. And in this way Christ was reckoned cursed while hanging on the cross, because he was punished especially by such a punishment. And according to this it is connected to what precedes. For the Lord commanded in Deuteronomy that whoever was hanged should be taken down in the evening; and the reason for this is that this punishment was more base and more ignominious than the others. He says therefore: he was truly made a curse for us, because the very death of the cross, which he sustained, suffices for a curse — explaining it in this way concerning the evil of guilt, but only in the estimation of the Jews, since it is written "cursed is everyone," etc. But concerning the evil of punishment it is explained thus: "cursed is everyone who," etc., because the punishment itself is the curse, namely that he died in this way. And explaining it in this way, he was truly cursed by God, because God ordained that he should sustain this punishment, in order to free us.

Consequently, when he says "that upon the Gentiles the blessing," etc., he sets forth the hope which we acquire through Christ, beyond the fact that through him we are freed from the curse — as is said in Romans 5:16: "not as the offense, so also the gift"; rather it is much greater, namely because it frees from sin, and confers grace.

First, then, he sets forth the fruit, and to whom it is given, saying "that upon the Gentiles the blessing of Abraham," etc.; as if to say: he was made a curse for us, not only that he might remove the curse, but that upon the Gentiles, who were not under the curse of the law, the blessing of Abraham might come to be, as promised in Genesis 22:18: "in your seed shall all nations be blessed," etc. And this blessing indeed was made to us, that is, was fulfilled, through Christ, who is of the seed of Abraham, to whom the promises were spoken, and to his seed, who is Christ, as is said below.

And this blessing and fruit is that we might receive the promise of the Spirit, that is, the promises which the Holy Spirit makes in us, namely concerning eternal blessedness — who, given to us as a kind of pledge and guarantee, promises it to us, as is found in Ephesians 1:14 and 2 Corinthians chapter 6. And indeed it is given as a pledge for the sake of certainty. For a pledge is a certain sure promise concerning a thing to be received. Romans 5: "for you have not received the spirit of servitude," etc., and below: "if sons, then heirs also."

Or "that we might receive the promise of the Spirit," that is, the Holy Spirit himself; as if to say: let us receive the promise made concerning the Holy Spirit to the seed of Abraham, Joel 2:28: "I will pour out of my spirit," etc.; because through the Holy Spirit we are joined to Christ, and are made the seed of Abraham, and worthy of the blessing.

Second, he shows through what this fruit comes to us, saying "through faith," through which indeed we also acquire the eternal inheritance. Hebrews 9: "he who approaches God must believe that he exists, and that he is a rewarder of those who seek him." Through faith also we acquire the Holy Spirit, because, as is said in Acts 5:32, "the Lord gives the Holy Spirit to those who obey him," namely through faith.

After the Apostle proved by authorities that the law does not justify, nor is necessary for justification, which is through faith, here he consequently shows the same thing by human reasons. And concerning this he does four things. First, he sets down a human custom; second, he takes up the divine promise, at the words "The promises were made to Abraham," etc.; third, he draws the conclusion, at "Now this I say," etc.; fourth, he shows that the conclusion follows from the premises, at "For if of the law," etc.

He says therefore: I indeed spoke openly before according to the authority of Scripture, which was brought forth not by human will, but by the Holy Spirit, as it is said in 2 Peter 1:21; but now I speak according to man, and according to what human reason and custom hold. From this, indeed, we have an argument that for discoursing about the things of faith, we may use any truth of any science whatsoever. Deuteronomy 21:11: "If thou seest among the captives a beautiful woman, and thou lovest her, and wilt have her to wife, thou shalt bring her into thy house" — that is, if secular wisdom and knowledge should please you, you shall bring it within your borders — "who shall shave her hair," etc., that is, it will cut away all erroneous senses. And hence it is that the Apostle in many places in his epistles uses the authorities of the gentiles, as that in 1 Corinthians 15:33: "Evil communications corrupt good manners," etc., and that in Titus 1:11: "The Cretans, evil beasts," etc. Or, although reasons of this kind are empty and weak — because, as it is said in Psalm 93:11, "The Lord knows the thoughts of men, that they are vain" — nevertheless no one despises or overrides a man's confirmed testament, because nothing human has such firmness as a man's last will; but someone would despise it, if he said that a man's testament, confirmed by the death of the testator and by witnesses, were not valid. If, then, no one despises a testament of this kind, saying that it need not be kept, or despises it by altering something in it, much more should no one despise or override the testament of God, by infringing it, or by adding to it or taking away from it. Apocalypse, last chapter: "If any man shall add to these things, God shall add unto him the plagues written in this book; and if any man shall take away from the words of this prophecy, God shall take away his part," etc. Deuteronomy 4:2: "You shall not add to the word which I speak to you, nor shall you take away from it," etc.

Consequently, when he says "The promises were made to Abraham," etc., he takes up the divine promise made to Abraham, which is as it were a certain testament of God. And first he expounds this promise or testament; second, he discloses the truth of the testament, at "He does not say: And to seeds," etc. He says therefore first, "The promises were made to Abraham," as if to say: just as a man's testament is firm, so the divine promises are firm. But did God make any promises before the law? Certainly, because to Abraham, who was before the law — namely, that God would not deceive — the promises were spoken, that is, made, both to him and to his seed, by God. But they were made to Abraham, as to the one to whom they were to be fulfilled; and to his seed, as that through which they were to be fulfilled. Now he says "promises" in the plural, because the promise concerning the blessing of the seed contained many things. Or because the same thing — that is, eternal blessedness — was frequently promised to him, as in Genesis 12:3, "In thee shall all the kindreds of the earth be blessed"; likewise 15:5, "Look up to heaven, and number the stars," etc.; likewise in the same place: "To thy seed I will give this land," etc.; likewise 22:18: "I will bless thee, and I will multiply thy seed as the stars of heaven." These promises, therefore, are as it were the testament of God, because there is a certain ordinance concerning the inheritance to be given to Abraham and to his seed.

But he discloses the truth of the testament when he says: "He does not say: And to seeds," etc. And indeed he discloses it by the same spirit by which the testament was drawn up. And this is clear from the words of the testament. "He does not say," he says, "and to seeds," as if referring to many — that is, as he would speak if it held true of many — "but as of one, who is Christ," because he alone is the one through whom and in whom all can be blessed. For he alone and singularly is the one who is not subject to the curse of guilt, even though he deigned to become a curse for us. Hence it is said in Psalm 140:10: "I am alone," etc. Likewise: "There is none that doth good," etc. Ecclesiastes 7:29: "One man among a thousand I have found" — namely, Christ, who would be without all sin — "but a woman among them all I have not found" — who would be wholly free of sin, at least original, or venial.

He draws the conclusion, then, consequently, when he says "Now this I say: the testament," etc., where let us see in order what it is that he says. He says therefore that this is what God promised to Abraham, but this is the testament, namely, this promise concerning obtaining the inheritance. Jeremiah 31:31: "I will make with the house of Israel and with the house of Judah a new covenant," etc. "Confirmed" — this he puts down so that it might agree with what was said before. For above he had said, "a man's testament, confirmed," etc. "By God" — namely, who promised. And I say it was confirmed by an oath. Genesis 22:16: "By my own self have I sworn," etc.; Hebrews 6:18: "That by two immutable things, in which it is impossible for God to lie," etc. This testament, I say, the law does not make void — the law which indeed was made, and given by God through Moses. John 1:17: "The law was given by Moses," etc. "After four hundred and thirty," etc. And, as if expounding what he had said, he adds, "does not make void, so as to make the promise of no effect." For thus would the aforesaid testament become void, if the promise made to Abraham were made of no effect, that is, made in vain, as though the seed promised to Abraham were not sufficient for the blessing of the gentiles. But through Christ the promises made to the fathers were not made void, but confirmed. Romans 15:8: "I say that Jesus Christ was minister of the circumcision, to confirm the promises made to the fathers." And 2 Corinthians 1:20: "For all the promises of God are in him," etc.

Now, what is said, "after four hundred and thirty years," agrees with what is found in Exodus 12:40: "The abode of the children of Israel, during which they remained in Egypt, was four hundred and thirty years." And Acts 7:6: "The Lord spoke" — namely, to Abraham — "that his seed would be a sojourner in a foreign land, and they would subject them to servitude for four hundred and thirty years." But against this is what is said in Genesis 15:13: "Know for certain that thy seed shall be a stranger, and they will subject them to servitude, and afflict them, for four hundred years."

I respond. It must be said that if the computation of years is made from the first promise made to Abraham, which is read in Genesis 12, up to the departure of the children of Israel from Egypt, when the law was given, then there are four hundred and thirty years, as is written here, and in Exodus 12, and Acts 7. But if the computation begins from the birth of Isaac, of which we read in Genesis 21, then there are only four hundred and five years. For twenty-five years passed from the promise made to Abraham until the birth of Isaac. For Abraham was seventy-five years old when he went out from his land, and the first promise was made to him, as is found in Genesis 12. But he was a hundred years old when Isaac was born, as is found in the same place, chapter 21. That there were, from the birth of Isaac until the departure of the children of Israel from Egypt, four hundred and five years, is proved by this: that Isaac was sixty years old when he begot Jacob, as is found in Genesis 25; and Jacob was a hundred and thirty years old when he entered Egypt, as is found in Genesis 27. And thus, from the birth of Isaac until Jacob's entry into Egypt, there were a hundred and ninety years. But Joseph was thirty years old when he stood before Pharaoh, as is found in Genesis 41. And afterward there passed seven years of fruitfulness and two of barrenness, until Jacob's entry into Egypt, as is found in chapter 45. Now Joseph lived a hundred and ten years, as is found in the last chapter of Genesis. From which, if thirty-nine years are subtracted, seventy-one years remain. There were, therefore, from the birth of Isaac until the death of Joseph, two hundred and sixty-one years. Now the children of Israel were in Egypt after the death of Joseph for a hundred and forty-four years, as Rabanus says in the Gloss. There were, therefore, from the birth of Isaac until the departure of the children of Israel from Egypt and the giving of the law, four hundred and five years; but Scripture did not concern itself with the minute details. Or it can be said that in the fifth year of Isaac, Ishmael was expelled, and Isaac alone remained as Abraham's heir, and from that time there were four hundred years.

Then, when he says "For if of the law," etc., he shows how it follows from the premises that the law would make the promises void, if the law were necessary for justification, or for the blessing of the gentiles. He says therefore: truly the promise would be made void if the law were necessary. For if the inheritance — namely, of Abraham's blessing — were from the law, it would then no longer be from the promise, that is, from the seed promised to Abraham. For if the promised seed were sufficient for obtaining the inheritance of the blessing, justification would not come about through the law. But he destroys the consequent, when he says, "But God gave to Abraham," etc., that is, he promised that he would give — which was as certain as if he were giving it at once — through the promise, that is, through the promised seed. The inheritance, therefore — that is, the blessing — is not from the law; concerning which it is said in 1 Peter 3:9: "Unto this you are called, that you may inherit a blessing."

After the Apostle showed, both by the authority of Scripture and by human custom, that the law could not justify, here he raises two doubts and resolves them. The second doubt begins there: "Is the law then against the promises of God," etc.

Concerning the first he does three things. First he raises the doubt; second he resolves it, there: "because of transgressions," etc.; third he explains something set down within the solution, there: "now a mediator," etc.

Now there can be a doubt of this sort from what has gone before: if the law could not justify, whether it was altogether useless. And he raises this doubt, saying "What then is the law," etc. — that is, for what was the law useful? And Augustine approves this punctuation more, as is found in the Gloss, than another which had at first seemed better to him, namely that it be so distinguished: "What then?" And afterward it be said: "the law, because of transgressions," etc. A similar doubt is proposed in Romans 3:1, where it is said thus: "What then is more to the Jew," etc.

Then, when he says "because of transgressions," he resolves the doubt raised, where he does four things. First he sets forth the usefulness of the law; second, the fruit of the law, there: "until the seed should come," etc.; third, the ministers of the law, there: "ordained through Angels"; fourth, the lordship of the law, there: "in the hand of a mediator."

Concerning the first it must be noted that the old law was given on account of four things, corresponding to four things that follow from sin, which Bede enumerates: namely, on account of malice, weakness, concupiscence, and ignorance.

The law, then, was given first to repress malice — that is, while, by prohibiting sin and punishing it, men were drawn back from sin — and he touches on this, saying "the law was set because of transgressions," that is, for restraining transgressions; and concerning this it is found in 1 Timothy 1:9: "the law is not set for the just man, but for the unjust." The reason for this can be taken from the Philosopher in Ethics IV. For men who are well disposed are moved of themselves to act well, and paternal admonitions suffice for them, so that they do not need the law; but, as is said in Romans 2:14, "they are a law to themselves, having the work of the law written in their hearts." But men who are badly disposed need to be drawn back from sins by punishments. And therefore, as regards these, the positing of the law was necessary, which has a coercive power.

Second, the law was given to manifest weakness. For men presumed about two things: first indeed about knowledge, second about power. And therefore God left men without the teaching of the law, in the time of the law of nature, in which, while they fell into errors, their pride was convicted concerning the defect of knowledge, but there still remained a presumption concerning power. For they said, "one who would fulfill it is not lacking, but one who would command it is lacking," as is said in the Gloss on that word of Exodus 24: "Whatever the Lord shall command, we will do, and we will be obedient." And therefore the law was given, which would produce knowledge of sin — for "through the law comes the knowledge of sin," Romans 3:20. Which law, however, did not give the help of grace for avoiding sins, so that thus man, constituted under the law, might both test his own strength and recognize his own weakness, finding that without grace he could not avoid sin, and thus might more eagerly seek grace.

And this cause too can be taken from these words, so that it be said that the law was set for the fulfilling of transgressions — speaking, as it were, in that manner in which the Apostle says in Romans 5:20: "the law entered in that sin might abound"; which is not to be understood causally, but consecutively: because, with the law entering in, sin abounded, and transgressions were multiplied, while concupiscence, not yet healed by grace, burned the more toward that which was forbidden, and the sin became graver, with the transgression of the written law added on. And this God permitted, so that men, recognizing their own imperfection, might seek the grace of a mediator. Whence he says pointedly "it was set," as though placed in due order between the law of nature and the law of grace.

Third, the law was given to tame the concupiscence of a wanton people, so that, wearied by various ceremonies, they would turn aside neither to idolatry nor to wantonness. Whence Peter says in Acts 15:10: "this is a burden which neither we," etc.

Fourth, to instruct ignorance, the law was given as a figure of the grace to come, according to that word of Hebrews 10:1: "the law having a shadow," etc.

Then, when he says "until the seed should come," etc. — that is, Christ, concerning whom God had promised that through him all nations would be blessed. Matthew 11:13: "the law and the prophets were until John," etc. Genesis 12: "in thy seed," etc.

Now the ministers of the law are set down when he says "ordained" — that is, given in an orderly way — "through Angels," that is, through the messengers of God, namely Moses and Aaron. Malachi 2:7: "they shall require the law from his mouth," etc. "For the angel of the Lord," etc. Or "through Angels," that is, by the ministry of Angels. Acts 7:35: "you received the law by the disposition of Angels," etc. And it was given through Angels, because the law ought not to be given through the Son, who is greater. Hebrews 2:2: "for if the word spoken through Angels," etc.

He says "ordained," because it was given in an orderly manner, namely between the time of the law of nature, by which men were convicted that they could not help themselves, and the time of grace. For before they received grace, they had to be convicted by the law.

Now Christ is called the Lord of the law. And therefore he says "in the hand of a mediator," that is, in the power of Christ. Deuteronomy 33:2: "in his right hand a fiery law." 1 Timothy 2:5: "the mediator of God and men," etc. This mediator was signified by Moses, in whose hand the law was given. Deuteronomy 5:5: "I was the intermediary and the one in the middle between God and you," etc.

Then, when he says "now a mediator," etc., he explains what he had said, "in the hand of a mediator," which can be explained in three ways.

In one way, because a mediator is not of one only, but of two. Whence, since this one is the mediator of God and man, it is necessary that he be God and man. For if he were a mere man, or God only, he would not be a true mediator. If then he is true God, since no one is a mediator of himself, it could seem to someone that besides him there are other gods of whom he is the mediator; and he removes this, saying that this mediator, even though he is not of one only, there are not, on this account, other gods, but "God is one" — because, although he himself is other in person from God the Father, he is nevertheless not other in nature. Deuteronomy 6:4: "Hear, O Israel, the Lord thy God," etc. Ephesians 4:6: "one God," etc.

In a second way, because it could be believed that this one was the mediator of the Jews only; therefore he says: I say that Christ is the mediator, but not of one, namely of the Jews, but he is one of all — that is, sufficient for reconciling all to God, because he himself is God. Romans 3:30: "one God who justified circumcision by faith, and uncircumcision through faith," etc. 2 Corinthians 5:19: "God was in Christ reconciling the world to himself," etc.

In a third way, because he is not the mediator of one people only, namely the Jews, but also of the Gentiles. Ephesians 2:14: "he himself is our peace, who made both one." And this, on the part of the Gentiles, by taking away idolatry, and on the part of the Jews, by taking away the observance of the law.

But specially the mediator is the Son, not the Father, not the Holy Spirit; nonetheless, however, God is one.

Here the Apostle raises another doubt, namely whether the law is harmful to grace. And first he raises the doubt, saying "Is the law then," etc., as if to say: if the law was established on account of transgressions, does the law then act against the promises of God — namely, so that what God promised he would do through the promised seed, he does through something else? God forbid. As if to say: no. For above, in the same place: "the law does not make void the covenant so as to nullify the promises," etc. Romans 7:12: "the law is holy, and the commandment holy."

Second, when he says "For if a law had been given," etc., he resolves the doubt. And first he shows that the law is not against the promises of God; second, that it is in service of the promises, at the point "but concluded," etc.

He says, therefore, that although the law was established on account of transgressions, it is nevertheless not contrary to the promise of God, because it cannot remove the transgressions themselves. For if it did remove them, then it would clearly be against the promises of God, because justice would be through another way than the one God promised — since it would be through the law and not through faith — whereas nevertheless it is said, Habakkuk 2:4: "my just one lives from faith." Romans 3:22: "the justice of God is through the faith of Jesus Christ." And therefore he says that if a law had been given of such a kind that it could give life — that is, were of such power that it could confer the life of grace and eternal blessedness — then truly, and not merely apparently, justice would be from the law, if the law did what faith is said to do; and thus faith would be in vain. But the law does not justify, because the letter — namely, of the law — kills, as is said in 2 Corinthians 3:6, and Romans 8:2: "for the law of the spirit of life in Christ Jesus," etc.

Then when he says "but Scripture concluded," etc., he shows that the law not only is not contrary to grace but is even in service to it. And first he shows that the law serves the promises of God; second, how this service was made manifest among the Jews, at the point "but before faith came," etc.; third, how the Gentiles too, without the law, obtained the promises of God, at the point "for you are all sons of God," etc.

Concerning the first, it must be known that the law serves the promises of God in general with respect to two things. First, because it manifests sins. Romans 3:20: "through the law, knowledge of sin." Then, because it manifests human weakness, inasmuch as man cannot avoid sin except through grace, which was not given through the law. And just as these two things — namely, knowledge of the disease and the powerlessness of the sick person — greatly induce one to seek a physician, so knowledge of sin and of one's own powerlessness induce one to seek Christ. Thus, then, the law served grace, insofar as it supplied knowledge of sin and experience of one's own powerlessness. And therefore he says "Scripture" — that is, the written law — "concluded," that is, it held the Jews shut in, "under sin" — that is, it showed them the sins that they were committing. Romans 7:7: "I did not know concupiscence," etc. Likewise it "concluded," because with the law coming they took occasion for sin. Romans 11:32: "God has concluded all things under unbelief," etc. And this was so that man might seek grace. And therefore he says "that the promise" — that is, the grace that had been promised — "might be given not only to the Jews, but to all believers," because that grace was able to free from sins, and this grace is from the faith of Jesus Christ.

Then when he says "but before it came," etc., he sets forth the experience of this service made manifest among the Jews. And first he sets forth the service rendered to the Jews; second, he draws a certain corollary, at the point "therefore the law was our pedagogue," etc.

He says, therefore: if Scripture — that is, the written law — held all things shut in under sin, what benefits did the Jews have from the law before faith came from grace? He answers and says: we Jews, before the coming of faith, were kept under the law, inasmuch as it made us avoid idolatry and many other evils; we were kept, I say, not as free men, but as it were as servants under fear, and this "under the law" — that is, under the burden and dominion of the law. Romans 7:1: "the law has dominion over a man for as long as he lives," etc. And we were kept "shut in" — that is, preserved lest we should slip away from life, but were being prepared for it — that is, for that so-good faith which was to be revealed. Isaiah 56:1: "my salvation is near, that it may come, and my justice, that it may be revealed." And he says "to be revealed," because since faith exceeds every human intellect, it cannot be had through one's own understanding, but from revelation and the gift of God. Isaiah 40:5: "the glory of the Lord shall be revealed," etc. Or: for that faith which was to be revealed in the time of grace, lying hidden in ancient times under many signs. Whence also, at the time of Christ, the veil of the temple was torn, Matthew 27:51.

Consequently, when he says "the law was our pedagogue," etc., he draws a certain corollary. And first he shows the office of the law; second, the attestation of that office, at the point "but when the fullness of time came," etc.

Now the office of the law was the office of a pedagogue, and therefore he says "the law was our pedagogue," etc. For as long as an heir cannot obtain the benefit of the inheritance, whether on account of a deficiency of age or of some due perfection, he is kept and guarded by some instructor, and this instructor indeed is called a "pedagogue," from "paidos," which means "boy," and "agoge," which means "leading." For through the law the Jews, like weak children, were held back from evil through fear of punishment, and were advanced toward the good by the love and promise of temporal things. Now to the Jews was promised the blessing of the future seed with a view to obtaining the inheritance, but the time of obtaining that inheritance itself had not yet come. And therefore it was necessary that they be preserved until the time of the future seed, and be restrained from unlawful things — which was accomplished through the law. And therefore he says "therefore," etc., as if to say: since we were kept under the law, the law was our pedagogue — that is, directing and preserving us "in Christ," that is, in the way of Christ. And this was so that we might be justified from the faith of Christ. Hosea 11:1: "Israel a child, and I loved him." Jeremiah 31:18: "you have chastised me, Lord, and I was instructed," etc. Romans 3:28: "for we reckon that a man is justified through faith," etc. And although the law was our pedagogue, it nevertheless did not lead to the perfect inheritance, because, as is said in Hebrews 7: "the law brought no one to perfection," etc.

But this office ceased after faith came. And this is what he says: "but when faith came" — namely, the faith of Christ — "we are now no longer under a pedagogue" — that is, under a coercion which is not necessary for free men. 1 Corinthians 15: "when I was a child," etc.; "but when I became a man," etc. 2 Corinthians 5:17: "if then any new creature in Christ, the old things have passed away," etc.

Here the Apostle shows that the Gentiles arrived at the fruit of grace without the service of the law, to which fruit the Jews nevertheless were led through the keeping and service of the law. And concerning this he does three things. First he sets forth his intention; second he makes his proposal manifest, at the words for as many of you as, etc.; third he argues from this, at the words but if you be Christ's; therefore, etc. He says therefore: truly we are not under the law, that is, under the pedagogue and under coercion, because we are sons of God. Likewise you too are neither under the law nor under the pedagogue, namely because you have arrived at grace. Therefore you are all sons of God through faith, not through the law. Romans 8:15: for you have not received the spirit of servitude, namely of fear, which was given under the old law, but you have received the spirit of sons, namely of charity and love, which is given under the new law through faith. John 1:12: he gave them power to become the sons of God, etc. If therefore you are sons of God through faith, why do you wish to be slaves through the observances of the law? For faith alone makes men adoptive sons of God. Indeed no one is an adoptive son unless he is united and cleaves to the natural son. Romans 8:29: whom he foreknew to become conformed to the image of his son, etc. For faith makes us sons in Christ Jesus. Ephesians 3:17: that Christ may dwell through faith in your hearts. And this in Christ Jesus, that is, you are sons of God through Jesus Christ.

Accordingly, when he says for as many of you as, etc., he makes his proposal manifest. And concerning this he does three things. First he sets forth the manifestation of the proposal; second the exposition of the manifestation, at the words there is neither Jew, etc.; third he assigns the reason for the manifestation, at the words for you are all one, etc. Now concerning the first he manifests how we are sons of God in Christ Jesus. And this is what he says: for as many of you as have been baptized in Christ Jesus, etc. This can be explained in four ways. In one way, so that it is said: as many of you as have been baptized in Christ Jesus, that is, you have been instructed unto Baptism by the institution of Christ. Mark, last chapter: going into the whole world, preach the Gospel to every creature, etc. He that believeth and is baptized, etc. In another way: as many of you as have been baptized in Christ Jesus, namely by likeness, and by configuration to the death of Christ. Romans 6:3: as many of us as have been baptized in Christ Jesus, have been baptized in his death. Or in Christ Jesus, that is, in the faith of Jesus Christ. For Baptism does not take place except in faith, without which we obtain no effect of Baptism. Mark, last chapter: he that believeth and is baptized shall be saved, etc. Or in Christ Jesus, that is, in his power and operation. John 1:33: upon whom thou shalt see the Spirit descending, this is he that baptizeth. Therefore whoever have been baptized in these four ways, have put on Christ. Here it must be known that whoever is clothed with some garment is protected and covered by it, and appears under the color of the garment, his own color being hidden. In the same way, whoever puts on Christ is protected and covered by Christ Jesus against attacks and burning heats, and nothing else appears in him except what belongs to Christ. Romans 13:14: put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ. And just as kindled wood is clothed with fire and participates in its power, so too whoever receives the virtues of Christ is clothed with Christ. Luke, last chapter: sit ye in the city till you be endued with power, etc., which applies to those who are inwardly formed by the power of Christ. Ephesians 4:24: put on the new man, who according to, etc. And note that some put on Christ outwardly through good conduct, and inwardly through the renewal of the spirit; and according to both through the configuration of holiness, as is touched on in the Gloss.

Now he sets forth the exposition of the manifestation when he says there is neither Jew, etc., as if to say: I have truly said that whoever is in Christ Jesus, etc. Because nothing can be found in men that would make an exception from the sacrament of the faith of Christ and of Baptism. And he sets down three differences among men, showing that by none of them is anyone excepted from the faith of Christ. The first difference is as to rite, when he says there is neither Jew nor Greek, as if to say: from the fact that one has been baptized in Christ Jesus, it makes no difference that he should on this account be less worthy in the faith, from whatever rite he came to it, whether from the Jewish rite or the Greek. Romans 3:29-30: is he the God of the Jews only? Is he not also of the Gentiles? Yea, of the Gentiles also, for it is one God that justifieth circumcision by faith, and uncircumcision through faith. And Romans 10:12: there is no distinction of the Jew and the Greek, etc. But against this is what is said in Romans 3:1: what advantage then hath the Jew? Much every way. I respond: it must be said that the Jews and the Greeks can be considered in two ways: in one way according to the state in which they were before faith, and thus the Jew had the advantage on account of the benefit of the law. In another way as to the state of grace, and thus the Jew has no advantage; and it is in this sense that it is understood here.

The second difference is as to state and condition, when he says there is neither bond nor free, that is, neither servitude nor liberty, neither nobility nor lack of nobility makes a difference as to receiving the effect of Baptism. Job 3:19: the small and great are there, and the servant is free from his master. Romans 2:11: there is no respect of persons with God.

The third difference is as to nature, when he says there is neither male nor female, because sex makes no difference as to participating in the effect of Baptism. Galatians 3:28: there is neither male nor female, etc.

Now he sets forth the reason for the exposition when he says for you are all one in Christ Jesus, as if to say: truly none of these things is such that a difference is made in Christ, because you all, namely the faithful, are one in Christ Jesus, since in Baptism you have all been made members of Christ, and one body, even though among yourselves you are diverse. Romans 12:5: we are all one body in Christ, etc. Ephesians 4:4: one body, one spirit, etc. But where there is unity, difference has no place. For this unity Christ prays, John 17:21: I will, Father, that they may be one, etc.

Accordingly, when he says but if you be, etc., he argues to the principal proposal in this way: I said that the promises were made to Abraham and to his seed, but you are Abraham's; therefore the promise of Abraham concerning obtaining the inheritance pertains to you. He proves the minor thus: you are adoptive sons of God, because you are united through faith to Christ, who is the natural Son of God; but Christ is the son of Abraham, as above in the same chapter: as it were in one, and to thy seed, who is Christ; therefore if you are Christ's, that is, in Christ, you are the seed of Abraham, that is, sons, since Christ is his son. And if sons, you are also heirs, that is, the inheritance pertains to you according to the promise made to Abraham. Romans 9:8: they that are the children of the flesh, the same are not the children of God, but they that are the children of the promise are accounted for the seed.