Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew

Above it was shown that Christ prepared himself for teaching by receiving Baptism; but now he does so by overcoming temptation. Concerning this he does two things: first the victory which he had over the temptation is set forth; second, how he called the disciples to hear his teaching, at the passage "And Jesus walking by the sea of Galilee." Concerning the first he does three things: first he sets forth certain preambles about the temptation; second the assault of the temptation is set forth, at "And the tempter coming approached and said"; third the victory, at "Then the Devil left him." Now three preambles are set forth, namely the place, the fasting, and the experience of hunger. As to the first, four things are touched upon: the time and the place, the leader, and the purpose of this leading.

The time is "then," namely when it was already being declared by the Father's voice that he was the Son of God. In this he gives us to understand that temptation threatens those who are made sons of God through Baptism; Ecclesiasticus 2:1: "Son, when thou comest to the service of God, stand in justice and fear, and prepare thy soul for temptation." This desert was between Jerusalem and Jericho, where many were killed, concerning which Luke 10:30: "A certain man went down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell among robbers, who also stripped him, and having inflicted wounds went away, leaving him half-dead."

And note five reasons why anyone is tempted after receiving spiritual grace. The first, that he may receive proof of his own righteousness; Ecclesiasticus 34:9: "He that hath not been tempted, what manner of things doth he know?" Second, to repress pride; 2 Corinthians 12:7: "Lest the greatness of the revelations should exalt me, there was given me a sting of my flesh, an angel of Satan, to buffet me," etc. Third, to confound the Devil, that he may know how great the power of Christ is, so that he cannot overcome it. An example of this is found in Job 1:8: "Hast thou considered my servant Job?" etc. Fourth, that he may be rendered stronger, just as soldiers are rendered strong through experience; Judges 3, asking why he willed to leave the enemies remaining among the children of Israel. Fifth, that he may know his own dignity: for when the Devil attacks someone, this redounds to his honor, since the Devil attacks the holy; Job 40:10: "his food is grass," and he "trusteth that the Jordan may run into his mouth."

Next follows, concerning the place: "Then Jesus was led into the desert." This fits both what precedes and what follows: for it was fitting that after Baptism he should enter the desert. This is signified in the people of Israel, who after the crossing of the Red Sea, which was a figure of Baptism, came into the land of promise through the desert and solitude: so too the baptized ought to seek a solitary and quiet life, forsaking the world in body, or in mind; Hosea 2:14: "I will lead her into solitude, and I will speak to her heart." Psalm 54:8: "Behold I have gone far off flying away, and I abode in the wilderness." For it was fitting that he should go out into the desert, as it were to a single combat with the Devil. Chrysostom: he goes into the desert who goes out beyond the bounds (that is, the will) of the flesh and the world, where there is no place for temptation. For how is he tempted to lust, who is all day with his wife? But those who do not go out from the will of the flesh and the world are not sons of God, but sons of the Devil, who, even having their own wife, desire another's; but the sons of God, having the Holy Spirit, are led into the desert, that they may be tempted together with Christ, concerning which it follows: "he was led by the Spirit" — understand, the Holy Spirit.

But he who leads is greater than the one who is led. Therefore the Holy Spirit is greater than Christ. It must be answered: if it is referred to Jesus insofar as he is the Son of God, then he is equal to the Holy Spirit. And one can lead another either by command, and thus he is greater; or by exhortation, and thus he is equal; John 1:40 and following, Andrew led Peter to Jesus; and it is in this way that Jesus was led. Hilary refers it to Christ according as he is man: namely, the Holy Spirit exposed to temptation the man whom he had filled. For men are then led by the Holy Spirit when they are moved by charity, in such a way that they are moved not by their own motion but by another's, because they follow the impulse of charity; 2 Corinthians 5:14: "the charity of God presseth us." And thus the sons of God are driven by the Holy Spirit, so that they may pass through the time of this life, which is full of temptations — Job 7:1: "temptation is the life of man upon the earth" — with victory, through the power of Christ. For he himself willed to be tempted, so that just as by his death he conquered our death, so by his temptation he might overcome all our temptations; Hebrews 4:15: "We have not a high priest who cannot have compassion on our infirmities, but one tempted in all things after our likeness, without sin."

Gregory says that there is a threefold degree of temptation, namely by suggestion, delight, and consent. The first is from without, and can be without sin; the second is from within, in which sin begins to be; which indeed is completed through consent. The first degree could be in Christ, not the others. And note that the Devil would not have dared to approach to tempt Christ, unless Christ had first approached him.

Consequently the second preamble is set forth, namely the fasting — "and when he had fasted," etc. — which fits both what precedes and what follows: what precedes, because it is fitting that someone fast after Baptism, since after Baptism one ought not be given over to idleness, but should be exercised in good works; Galatians 5:13: "But you, brethren, have been called unto liberty"; but true liberty is not to be committed to the carnal life. Likewise it was fitting for what follows, that he whom the Devil was about to tempt should fast, because "this kind of demons is not cast out except by prayer and fasting" (Matthew 17:20 below). "Forty days." This is to be understood literally. And he adds "and nights," lest some believe that it was permitted to eat at night, as the Saracens do. And it must be known that this number is prefigured in the Old Testament in Moses and Elijah, Exodus 24:18, and 3 Kings 19:8.

And a mystery lies hidden in this, because a number of this sort arises from ten multiplied by four. Ten signifies the law, because in the ten commandments the whole law is contained. Four signifies the composition of the flesh, because the flesh is composed of four elements. Since therefore we transgress the divine law through the suggestion of the flesh, it is just that we should afflict our flesh for forty days. According to Gregory, however, this number was instituted by the Church for fasting, because by this we pay the tithes of the whole year: for from the first Sunday up to Easter there are thirty-six fast days, which are a tenth part of the year itself, six days being excepted. And therefore of old a half day was added by some, who fasted until the middle of the night of Holy Saturday. A third preamble is added, because "afterward he hungered." This is not read of Moses and Elijah, who were mere men; but Christ willed to hunger, in order to demonstrate his humanity; because otherwise the Devil would not have dared to approach to tempt him; Philippians 2:7: "made in the likeness of men, and found in habit as a man."

Consequently the assault of the temptation is set forth; and it is threefold. The first concerning gluttony; the second concerning vainglory; the third concerning ambition. The second at "Then the Devil took him up into the holy city." The third at "Again the Devil took him up into an exceeding high mountain." Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth the assault of the Devil; second, how Christ answered, at "Who answering," etc.

"And the tempter coming approached, said." For this could be brought about, that he himself should approach Jesus in some bodily form. And temptation is threefold: for God tempts in order to instruct; Genesis 22:1: "God tempted Abraham." Sometimes man tempts in order to learn, just as the queen of Sheba tempted Solomon, 3 Kings 10:1, where it is said of her: "And the queen of Sheba, having heard of the fame of Solomon, came to tempt him with riddles." The Devil tempts in order to deceive; 1 Thessalonians 3:5: "lest perhaps he that tempteth should have tempted you."

Whoever wishes to test someone regarding knowledge first tests concerning common things. Now the common vices of the whole human race are the vices of the flesh, and especially gluttony. Likewise, he who wishes to besiege a stronghold begins from the weaker part; but man has two parts, the carnal and the spiritual. The Devil always tempts from the weaker part: hence he first tempts concerning carnal vices, as is evident in the first parent, whom he first tempted concerning gluttony. But a wonderful cunning is to be noted in his tempting: "If thou be the Son of God" — for he tempted directly concerning one thing, in such a way that obliquely he tempted concerning another. Hence in the first man he urged that he eat of the tree, which pertained directly to a carnal sin, namely gluttony; but secretly he was leading him on to pride and avarice, which are spiritual sins; hence he said, "And you shall be as gods," Genesis 3:5.

So too in Christ: for he had heard that Christ was to come into the world, and this one seemed to be the Son of God; but he had come into doubt whether this was the one of whom it had been prophesied, because he found nothing in him; John 14:30: "The prince of this world cometh, and in me he hath not any thing." Hence he was suggesting what is delightful to a hungry man. Likewise he led him on to desire the things that are God's; and this is: "If thou be the Son of God, command that these stones be made bread." Ecclesiastes 8:4: "his word is full of power"; and Psalm 32:6: "By the word of the Lord the heavens were established, and all the power of them by the spirit of his mouth." Therefore a stone can be changed by his word. Therefore he wished to incline him to this: that if he did it, he would know him to be the Son of God; if not, he was leading him toward arrogance.

And it must be noted that there are many men who consent to carnal sins, reckoning that they need not thereby lose their spiritual state. But if, in that in which a man is tempted and consents, he would not lose his spirituality, the temptation would be light. Thus the Devil wished to persuade the woman, and Christ, promising spiritual things. "Who answering said: It is written, Not in bread alone doth man live." In this response he gives three lessons, which are to be practiced by the one tempted.

The first, that he should have recourse to the medicine of Scripture; Psalm 118:11: "In my heart I have hidden thy words, that I may not sin against thee," etc. Hence he said, "It is written." The second lesson, that man should do nothing at the Devil's bidding. Vegetius: a wise commander ought never to do anything at the bidding of his enemy, even if it should seem good. And therefore the Lord, though he could without sin change stones into bread, was unwilling, because it was that one who was suggesting it. The third is, that one ought not act without benefit, for the display of one's own power, since this is vanity. "Who answering said: It is written, Not in bread alone doth man live."

It must be noted that the Devil was striving toward two things: first, to lead him into an affection for carnal things; likewise toward presumption. But Christ, against each of these, first avoids boastfulness; as if he were to say: you call me the Son of God, I name myself a man; hence, "Not in bread alone doth man live." Likewise, the Devil draws toward an affection for carnal things: "Command that these stones be made bread"; here he draws himself toward an affection for spiritual things: "but in every word that proceedeth from the mouth of God." As if he were to say: bodily life is not to be sought after as much as spiritual life, which is preserved by spiritual food: "but in every word that proceedeth from the mouth of God." John 6:69: "Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou hast the words of eternal life"; Psalm 118:93: "Thy justifications I will never forget: for by them thou hast given me life." And he says "in every word," because all spiritual teaching is from God, whether it be spoken by man or by God. And again, "from the mouth": because the preacher is the mouth of God; Jeremiah 15:19: "If thou separate the precious from the vile, thou shalt be as my mouth." Or otherwise: "Not in bread alone" — that is, man does not live by bread alone, but he can also be preserved by the word, that is, by the command of God, without any food.

"Then the Devil took him up into the holy city." The first temptation having been set forth, in which the Devil was conquered, now the second is set forth, namely concerning vainglory. And the order is fitting, that after the Devil saw himself defeated in the vice of the flesh, he should tempt concerning vainglory, or pride: for pride lies in wait for good works, that they may perish, as Augustine says in the Rule. Concerning this temptation, then, he does three things. First the place of the temptation is set forth; second the assault, or attempt, of the temptation, at "If thou be the Son of God, cast thyself down"; third the resistance of Christ, at "Jesus said to him."

But it must be known that Luke set this as the third temptation, whereas here it is the reverse; but this makes no difference, according to Augustine: because all the things narrated here are also narrated in Luke, nor is it stated, either in Luke or here, which was first or second. Rabanus, however, says that Luke attended to the order of the history, and therefore arranged it thus, according to how it happened. Matthew, however, followed the nature of the temptation, because after the temptation of gluttony and of vainglory there follows the temptation of ambition: for thus was Adam tempted — first concerning gluttony, hence Genesis 2:17: "In what day soever thou shalt eat of it, thou shalt die the death"; second concerning glory: "You shall be as gods"; third concerning avarice, or ambition: "knowing good and evil."

But why does he say "then he took him up"? For this word "taking up" implies force. And Jerome answers that the Evangelist says this according to the opinion of the Devil, because what Christ endured out of his own power, the Devil took as though he were doing it by his own power. He calls it "holy," either because holy things were done there — namely temporal sacrifices and the like — or he says it on account of the holiness of the fathers who were there. Hence, from ancient custom he calls it "holy," although the holiness had ceased; Isaiah 1:21: "How is the faithful city, that was full of judgment, become a harlot?" But afterward it says, "thou shalt be called the city of the just, the faithful city," etc.

But it must be known that Mark 1:13 says that he was in the desert forty days and forty nights, and was tempted by Satan. From which it seems that all the temptations were in the desert. Therefore it does not seem to be true what is said, "then the Devil took him up." And here there is a twofold response. Some say that all the temptations were in the desert, and that they occurred according to an imaginative vision, namely that Christ so imagined it, with his own permission. Others say that they occurred according to a bodily vision, and that the Devil appeared to him in bodily form. This seems to be implied, because it says that he took him up into the holy city. Some say that this pertains to the desert for this reason, that Jerusalem was deserted by God. But it is better to say that what is stated in Mark 1:13 is not to be understood as meaning that all the temptations were in the desert, nor does Mark even say this, but only that he was being tempted by Satan. And therefore it must be known that the first temptation was in the desert; the other two outside the desert.

But it is asked how he "took him up." They say that he carried him upon himself. Others (and better), that by exhorting he induced him to go; and Christ, by the disposition of his own wisdom, went to Jerusalem. "And set him upon the pinnacle of the temple," etc. It must be known that it is read in 3 Kings, chapter 6, that Solomon made three stories in the temple with a flat roof, and certain pinnacles next to the temple, by which men could ascend; and it is concerning this that it is said here, "and set him upon the pinnacle of the temple." But whether he went up to the first, or the second, or the third, is not said here; but it is certain that he ascended some one of them. But did not men see, when the Devil was carrying Christ? It must be said, according to those who say that he was carrying him, that Christ by his own power brought it about that he could not be seen. Or it must be said that the Devil was in the form of a man, and it was the custom that men should ascend in this way.

"And he said to him: If thou be the Son of God, cast thyself down." The Devil always strikes with two arrows: on the one side he induces vainglory, on the other side, homicide; and this is: "If thou be the Son of God," etc. But certainly this consequence does not suit Christ, because it belongs to him to ascend; John 3:13: "No man hath ascended into heaven, but he that descended from heaven, the Son of man who is in heaven," etc. And he says "cast thyself down," because his intention is always to cast down, just as he himself was cast down; Apocalypse 12:4: "the tail of the dragon drew the third part of the stars of heaven, and cast them to the earth." The Devil also betrays his own weakness, because no one is conquered by him unless he is willing; hence he says "cast thyself down," he does not cast him down; Isaiah 41:23: "Bow down, that we may go over."

But why upon the pinnacle? The Gloss: because in that place they used to teach. Hence it signifies that the Devil tempts great men concerning vainglory. Against which the Apostle, 1 Thessalonians 2:6: "nor seeking glory of men, neither of you, nor of others." And he says "cast thyself down," etc., because men who seek glory must persuade to such a degree that they display the sonship of God as humble in many respects; and therefore Tully says in the book On Duties: the desire for glory must be guarded against, for it snatches away the freedom of the soul, for which every struggle ought to be waged by great-souled men.

Consequently he brings in the authority, "it is written"; and he uses this not in order to teach, but in order to deceive; and from this an argument is drawn, that just as he transfigures himself into an angel of light, so also do his ministers, who use the authority of Sacred Scripture to deceive the simple; 2 Peter, last chapter, 16: "the unlearned and unstable wrest the Scriptures to their own destruction." Hence the Devil prefigured this in himself as in the head. "For he hath given his angels charge over thee."

Note that one distorts the authority of Sacred Scripture in three ways: sometimes as when a thing is said of one and is expounded of another — as if it is said of some just man, and is expounded of Christ; for example: "Who could have transgressed, and hath not transgressed," Ecclesiasticus 31:10. Likewise John 14:28, "the Father is greater than I," this is said of Christ according as he is man. Hence if it is expounded of him according as he is the Son of God, the authority is distorted. So the Devil here says "his angels," because Psalm 90 says this of a member of Christ, who needs the guardianship of angels, which is evident because it adds, "lest perhaps thou dash thy foot": for this cannot be said of Christ, because he could not stumble by occasion of any sin.

In the second way one distorts, when someone brings in the authority for something for which it is not an authority; as that text, Proverbs 25:21 and Romans 12:20: "If thy enemy be hungry, feed him," etc. For if someone does something to another so that the other might be punished by God, he acts against the sense of the authority. So too the Devil, because Scripture intends that the just man is so guarded by angels that he does not fall into danger; Psalm 9:10: "a helper in due time in tribulation," etc. But the Devil expounds it as meaning that a man should thrust himself into danger, which is to tempt God.

In the third way, when one takes from an authority what is in his favor, and leaves aside what is against him — which is the way of the heretic: thus the Devil did here, because he left aside what follows, which was against him, namely: "Thou shalt walk upon the asp and the basilisk, and thou shalt trample under foot the lion and the dragon." Hence he became the model of all who distort the Scriptures.

"The Lord said to him." He defends himself not by violence, but by wisdom; Wisdom 7:30: "wisdom is not overcome by malice." And therefore against that authority he sets an authority which explains the one already cited; as if he were to say: you tell me to cast myself down, that I may see whether God will rescue me; but this is forbidden in Scripture; hence, "Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God," Deuteronomy 6:16. Or otherwise: you are tempting, and in tempting you are acting against the authority; but he who acts against the authority ought not to use the authority of Sacred Scripture. And Scripture says, "thou shalt not tempt," etc. But you are tempting the Lord thy God, who am I; John 13:13: "You call me Master and Lord, and you say well, for so I am," etc. Nevertheless, the first explanation is more literal.

Consequently the third temptation is set forth, namely concerning ambition, or avarice; hence, "Again the devil took him up." And the assault of the temptation is set forth; second, the resistance of Christ, at "Then Jesus saith to him: Begone, Satan." Now the Devil tempts in two ways, by deed and by word; hence, "all these will I give thee," etc. In the deed, two things are to be considered: for first he took him up onto a mountain; second he showed him all the kingdoms of the world.

He says, then, "then he took him up." Concerning the "taking up" it has been said above; but this, namely "onto a mountain," can be explained in two ways. Rabanus says that this mountain was in the desert, because according to him all the temptations were in the desert. It is called "high" in comparison to some other mountains that were round about. Chrysostom, however, says that he led him to the greatest mountain in the world; and this seems to be what the letter of the text conveys, since it says "exceeding high." In this, however, it is signified that the Devil always raises up toward pride, just as he himself is proud; Jeremiah 13:16: "before your feet stumble upon the dark mountains." Hence too it is called a mountain; Jeremiah 1:15: "For behold I will call together all the families of the kingdoms of the north, saith the Lord."

"And he shewed him all the kingdoms of the world." It must be known that "the kingdom of the world" is taken in two ways. First, spiritually: and thus the Devil is said to reign in it; John 12:31: "Now shall the prince of this world be cast out." Second, according to the letter, "the kingdom of the world" is said according as one reigns over another. Now what is said here seems to some to be said of the kingdom of the Devil; hence "he shewed him all the kingdoms of the world" — namely those over which he reigned — "and the glory of them," etc., because when he reigns perfectly over men, he even makes them glory; Proverbs 2:14: "who are glad when they have done evil, and rejoice in most wicked things"; Psalm 51:3: "Why dost thou glory in malice?" And this is the last degree of sin. Others explain it of a carnal kingdom.

But then it is asked how he could show all the kingdoms of the world. Remigius says, miraculously: for he showed all the kingdoms in the twinkling of an eye, just as it is also read of blessed Benedict, that the whole world was shown to him in a single glance. But it must be known that these two explanations do not seem good, because there would have been no need to say that he took him up onto an exceeding high mountain, since all this could have been done in a valley. Hence Chrysostom says otherwise: "he shewed him" — not that he showed him each single kingdom, but toward what quarter each kingdom lay; and not only this, but he "shewed him the glory of them," that is, he set forth to him the temporal glory of the world; Hosea 4:7: "I will change their glory into shame"; Philippians 3:19: "glory is in the confusion of those who mind earthly things."

"And he said to him: All these will I give thee." In these words he does two things: he promises one thing, and demands another: and in the promise he is a liar, in the demand he is proud. The Devil at first tested whether he was the Son of God; now believing that he had already ascertained that he was not, he says, "all these will I give thee," etc.; wherein he is a liar, because these things were not in his own power; Proverbs 8:15: "By me kings reign, and lawgivers decree just things." Daniel 4:14: "till the living know that the Most High ruleth in the kingdom of men, and he will give it to whomsoever he will"; otherwise he would not have said "all these will I give thee"; for no evil man reigns except by divine permission; Job 34:30: "Who maketh a man that is a hypocrite to reign for the sins of the people."

He demanded another thing; hence, "if falling down thou wilt adore me." Note three things. First, that the Devil always perseveres in that which he desired from the beginning; Isaiah 14:13-14: "I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne above the stars of God, I will sit in the mountain of the covenant, in the sides of the north. I will ascend above the height of the clouds, I will be like the most High." And for this reason he leads men on to idolatry, wishing to usurp for himself what belongs to God. Likewise note that no one adores the Devil unless he falls, just as the Devil himself fell; Daniel 3:7: "falling down they adored the golden statue." And therefore he says, "if falling down thou wilt adore me." Third, note that here there is avarice. Hence he promises a kingdom, in which is understood an abundance of riches, and an excellence of honors. And he asks that he fall down: because the ambitious always humble themselves beyond what is fitting. Hence Ambrose: ambition has a danger native to itself: it bends in servility, that it may be granted honor; and while it wishes to be lofty, it becomes cast down.

Consequently the detection of the enemy is set forth; hence, "Then Jesus saith to him"; and concerning this he does two things. First he checks the temptation; second he brings in an authority, at "it is written," etc. He says, then, "Then Jesus saith to him." Note that Christ had heard many insults, but did not concern himself. But this, "if falling down thou wilt adore me," he did not endure: because the earlier ones redounded to an injury of himself, but this one to an injury of God. Hence Chrysostom: one's own injury is to be borne; to disregard an injury to God is exceedingly impious. And therefore he says, "Begone, Satan." 3 Kings 19:10: "With zeal I have been zealous for the Lord God of hosts: because the children of Israel have forsaken thy covenant"; Psalm 68:10: "the zeal of thy house hath eaten me up."

Likewise, note that it is not in the Devil's power to tempt as much as he wishes, but only as much as God permits; hence he says "Begone"; as if he were to say: I do not wish you to tempt any further; 1 Corinthians 10:13: "God is faithful, who will not suffer you to be tempted above that which you are able, but will make also with temptation issue, that you may be able to bear it"; Job 38:11: "Hitherto thou shalt come, and shalt go no further, and here thou shalt break thy swelling waves." And it must be noted that the Lord said almost similar words to Peter below, Matthew 16:23. But there he said "behind me." Hence the meaning is different here and there: because "Satan" is interpreted "adversary." The Lord therefore willed that Peter, who wished to hinder his Passion, should go behind him; but here he says only "go," because the Devil cannot follow him; and therefore he says "go" — namely, to Hell; Matthew 25:41 below: "Depart, ye cursed, into everlasting fire, which was prepared for the Devil and his angels."

"It is written"; Deuteronomy 6:16. And he frequently brings in such authorities from Deuteronomy, in order to signify that the teaching of the New Testament is signified through Deuteronomy. What follows, "the Lord thy God," can be inferred in two ways; as if he were to say: you, Devil, say that I should fall down and adore you; but the Law says, "Thou shalt adore the Lord thy God." Hence it can be brought in to show that a mere man ought not to be adored. Or it must be taken that he speaks of himself as of God: "Thou shalt adore the Lord thy God," etc., as if he were to say: you ought rather to adore me, than the other way round, because it is written, etc. Nevertheless, the first is more literal.

And note that he says two things, namely "thou shalt adore" and "thou shalt serve": and there is a difference between these. For man ought to relate himself to God in two ways: because he ought to be subject to him, and he ought to raise himself up to him as to his last end. As to the first, we owe him all obedience; Acts 5:29: "We ought to obey God, rather than men." For then we are subject to him, when we do his whole will. But we are raised up to God in two ways: for sometimes we draw ourselves to him; Psalm 33:6: "Come ye to him and be enlightened: and your faces shall not be confounded"; sometimes we draw others to him; 1 Corinthians 3:9: "for we are God's coadjutors." We demonstrate each of these sensibly: because while we make prostrations, we admonish ourselves that we ought to be subject to God; and therefore he says, "the Lord God"; Psalm 71:11: "all nations shall serve him." Likewise, in that we offer sacrifices and praises, we signify that we ought to raise up our mind to him: and to this pertains service; and this is, "and him only shalt thou serve."

And there is a twofold service: one which is owed to God alone; and this in Greek is called latria; and this is itself twofold. For one kind is adoration which is owed to God alone, which consists in serving him above all things; another service is that we should tend toward him as toward our last end. There is also an adoration or service which belongs only to subjects, as when inferiors serve their superiors; Romans 13:1: "Let every soul be subject to higher powers." But one ought not obey a superior above all things, because never against God. Likewise there is no creature which ought to be held as the last end; Psalm 145:3: "Put not your trust in princes: in the children of men, in whom there is no salvation." Jeremiah 17:5: "Cursed is the man that trusteth in man." There is also a second service, which is owed to prelates; which in Greek is called dulia.

Consequently the victory of Christ is set forth, and it is intimated in two things. In the departure of the Devil: "Then the Devil left him." James 4:7: "Resist the devil, and he will fly from you." And just as it was the custom among the ancients that when some had a victory, they were honored, so here the triumph of Christ is celebrated by the angels. Hence, "and behold angels came and ministered to him." He does not say "descended," because they were always with him, even though for a time they withdrew by his own will, so that the Devil might have opportunity for tempting: for they showed their service in external things, namely in miracles, and other bodily things which are done through the mediation of angels; for in interior things he had no need of them. In this it is signified that men who overcome the Devil merit the ministry of angels; Luke 16:22: "it came to pass that the beggar died, and was carried by the angels into Abraham's bosom." And it must be known that the Devil left Christ only for a time: because afterward he made use of the Jews as his own members to attack him, etc.

Above, the Evangelist showed how Christ was tested and approved, namely by overcoming the Devil; here he shows how Christ began to teach: and concerning this he does three things. For first the place in which he preaches is described; second he shows how he chose the ministers of his preaching, at the words "And Jesus, walking by the sea of Galilee, saw two brothers"; third, how he drew the crowd to listen, at the words "And Jesus went about all Galilee." Concerning the first, he describes the time, the place, and the manner of preaching; the second at the words "He withdrew into Galilee," etc.; the third at the words "and from that time Jesus began to preach."

This time of Christ's public preaching was after the imprisonment of John; hence he says, "Now when Jesus had heard that John was delivered up"—namely by God, since it was by his permission. And it should be noted, for the understanding of the Gospels, that here there seems to be a certain contrariety between John and the other three: for they say that Christ went down to Capernaum after the imprisonment of John, whereas John says that he went down to Capernaum before the imprisonment of John—which imprisonment, however, took place in Galilee. The answer is that John, who was the last, supplied those things that had been omitted by the others. But why did they omit them? It must be said that although Christ did certain things in the first two years, he had nevertheless done few things in comparison with those that were done in the last year. Therefore it must be said that John speaks of the things he did in the first and second years, and some things of the third; but these others speak of what was done in the last year.

Again, the question is asked for how many years Christ preached. Some say two years and a half, the half being computed from the Epiphany to the Passover, although it is not complete; for John made mention of only three Passovers, since after the Baptism he says that he went up to Jerusalem, John 2:13. Afterward he makes mention of the Passover when the miracle of the five loaves was worked, and after that there was one more year until the Passion. But this opinion does not seem to be true, inasmuch as it does not agree with the opinion of the Church; for the Church holds that three miracles were worked on the day of the Epiphany, namely the adoration of the Magi, the Baptism, and the changing of water into wine. It is necessary, therefore, to say that from the Baptism to the changing of water into wine there was one year. Hence it appears that Christ preached for three years, since up to the miracle of the wine there was one year; and from there to the Passover there was another half year; and from the Purification another year up to the Passion—for so the Church holds. And according to this it must be said that John says little about the first year; but of the second he says something, namely how he went down to Capernaum, and about the question that arose concerning purification between Christ himself and the Jews. It must also be known that John was killed about Passover time; for it is read in John 6:4 that when the miracle of the five loaves was worked, the Passover was near; and in Matthew 14:13 it is said that Christ, having heard of the death of John, withdrew into Galilee. It is clear, therefore, that John was beheaded about Passover time, and that Christ carried on his public preaching for only one year.

Then the place is treated, where it is said, "He withdrew into Galilee." And first the place is treated with respect to the province, and second with respect to the city. He says, then, "he withdrew"; this withdrawal is not the first one of which John speaks, but it took place after one or two years, since the Evangelists are silent about this earlier one. Now he withdrew for two reasons. First, that he might defer the time of his Passion; John 7:6: "My time is not yet come." Second, for our example, namely that we might flee persecutions; John 15:20: "If they have persecuted me, they will also persecute you." But in a mystical sense it makes clear that the preaching of Christ was to pass over to the Gentiles, because the Jews were persecuting the grace of God; Acts 13:46: "To you it behooved us first to speak the word of God: but because you reject it, and judge yourselves unworthy of eternal life, behold we turn to the Gentiles."

Now coming into Galilee he came first to Nazareth, as Luke says in 4:18ff., and there he entered the synagogue and taught, "The Spirit of the Lord is upon me." And from there the Jews led him to the brow of the hill, and wished to cast him down; and afterward Christ fled and came to Capernaum, and there he immediately healed a man possessed by a demon, concerning whom Mark 1:23 speaks. But Matthew omits this. Now Nazareth is interpreted "flower." By this are understood the doctors of the law, who do not come to maturity. For Capernaum is interpreted "most beautiful village," and signifies the Church; Song of Songs 6:3: "You are beautiful, my love," and so on. Capernaum is, in the literal sense, maritime, since it lies alongside a certain freshwater lake; for the Jews call every gathering of waters a sea. And in a mystical sense, because the Church is situated alongside the tribulations of the world.

"In the borders of Zabulon and Nephthalim." For Galilee was divided, and one part was in the tribe of Zabulon and Nephthalim. For from there the princes of the Church, namely the apostles, were chosen. "That it might be fulfilled which was spoken by Isaiah the prophet." Note that it is not said here just as in Isaiah 9:1; but only the sense is given. Isaiah has it thus: "At the first time the land of Zabulon and the land of Nephthalim was made light, and at the last was heavily loaded, the way of the sea beyond the Jordan, of Galilee of the Gentiles: the people that walked in darkness have seen a great light," and so on. And it is explained in three ways according to Jerome.

First, thus: at the first time it was made light by the preaching of Christ from sins, and at the last the way that is by the sea of Galilee was made heavy with the burden of sins, because after the preaching of Christ they persecuted the apostles. Or otherwise: "At the first time." He touches on the history: for Tiglath-Pileser, king of the Assyrians, who first came upon the land of the Jews, first led those tribes into captivity. And this is "at the first time it was made light," because then the sinners were first led into captivity. And "at the last," etc., because afterward the whole people was led into captivity. But what has this to do with the matter at hand? It must be said that where the persecution first began, there the Lord wished first to give consolation. Or otherwise: "At the first time," that is, at the time of Christ's preaching, "it was made light," that is, unburdened of the weight of sins through the preaching of Christ; and "at the last it was made heavy," that is, Christ's preaching was made dense and multiplied through Paul, who preached there.

For the Evangelist gives only the sense in his construction: "the land of Zabulon, and the land of Nephthalim, the way of the sea beyond the Jordan," that is, alongside the sea. And he says "land," that is, the people, so that all might be named. And he says "Galilee of the Gentiles," because Galilee is divided into two parts: one of the Gentiles, the other of the Jews; and it was so divided at that time according to what is said in 3 Kings 9:11, that Solomon, on account of the timber which the king of Tyre had sent to him for the building of the temple, gave him twenty cities; and since he was a Gentile, he settled Gentiles there to dwell; and therefore it is called "Galilee of the Gentiles," and it was in the tribe of Nephthalim, although the other part was in the tribe of Judah. Another reading has: "beyond the Jordan of Galilee," that is, in comparison to Galilee. But the first exposition is better.

"The people that walked in darkness have seen a great light." He speaks of two: him who walked, and him who sat; for he who is in darkness that from the beginning is not very dense, and is not stupefied by it, walks on, especially when he hopes to find light; but while one is stupefied by the darkness, he stands still. This is the difference between the Jews and the Gentiles: because the Jews, although they were in darkness, were nevertheless not totally oppressed by it, since not all of them worshipped idols, but hoped for the coming of Christ, and therefore they walked; Isaiah 50:10: "Who among you...has walked in darkness, and hath no light? Let him hope in the name of the Lord," and so on. But the Gentiles were not waiting; and therefore there was no hope of light. And again they were oppressed by darkness, because they worshipped idols, since according to Psalm 75:2, "God is known in Judea," and therefore they stood still. And this is what is said: "the people that sat in darkness have seen a great light." The light of the Jews was not great, 2 Peter 1:19: "We have the prophetic word, whereunto you do well to attend, as to a light that shineth in a dark place"; but this light was great, like the light of the sun; Malachi 4:2: "But unto you that fear my name, the sun of justice shall arise."

"And to them that sat," that is, the Gentiles, "in the region of the shadow of death." Death is damnation in Hell; Psalm 48:15: "Death shall feed upon them." The shadow of death is the likeness of future damnation, which is present in sinners. Now the great punishment of those who are in Hell is separation from God. And because sinners are already separated from God, they therefore bear a likeness of future damnation, just as the just also bear a likeness of future blessedness; 2 Corinthians 3:18: "But we all, beholding the glory of the Lord, are transformed into the same image from glory to glory." And note that the light "has risen" for the Gentiles, because they themselves did not go to the light, but the light came to them; John 3:19: "The light is come into the world." It "has risen" for them. And that land is on the border of the Jews and the Gentiles, so as to show that he called both; Isaiah 49:6: "It is a small thing that thou shouldst be my servant to raise up the tribes of Jacob, and to convert the dregs of Israel." And afterward: "I have given thee to be the light of the Gentiles, that thou mayst be my salvation even to the farthest part of the earth."

"From that time Jesus began to preach." Having set down the place where Christ first began to preach, here the manner of preaching is set down. "From that time," namely after overcoming gluttony, vain glory, and ambition or avarice, he began to preach; for such as have overcome these can fittingly preach. And thus is fulfilled that saying of Acts 1:1: "Jesus began to do and to teach." Or "from that time," that is, after the imprisonment of John, he began to preach publicly; for before this he had preached privately and to certain individuals, John 1:38ff., namely to Peter, Andrew, Philip, and Nathanael, but here publicly. Now he did not wish to preach publicly at first, so as to give room to the preaching of John; otherwise it would have availed nothing, just as the light of the stars is obscured by the light of the sun. By this it is signified that, the figures of the law ceasing, the preaching of Christ began; 1 Corinthians 13:10: "When that which is perfect is come, that which is in part shall be done away." For by John the law is signified; below, 11:13: "The law and the prophets were until John."

"Do penance." It should be noted that here Christ speaks the same words that John spoke, for two reasons. First, he admonishes us concerning humility, namely that no one should disdain to preach words spoken by others, since he himself, the fount of ecclesiastical knowledge, preached the same words. Second, because John is the voice, but he himself is the Word. Now the same thing is signified by the word and by the voice, except that the word is expressive of the voice. Concerning this he does two things: he admonishes one thing, and promises another. The first at the words "Do penance"; the second at the words "for the kingdom of heaven is at hand."

But why did he not admonish concerning justice at the beginning of his preaching, but to penance? It must be said that the reason was that he had earlier admonished concerning justice through the law of nature and of Scripture, but they had transgressed; Isaiah 24:5: "They have transgressed the laws, they have changed the ordinance, they have broken the everlasting covenant." In this he gives us to understand that he found all to be sinners; 1 Timothy 1:15: "Christ Jesus came into this world to save sinners"; Romans 3:23: "For all have sinned, and do need the glory of God." And this is "Do penance."

Now he promises something else; hence, "for the kingdom of heaven is at hand." This promise differs in two respects from the promise of the Old Testament: because there temporal things were promised, here heavenly and eternal things; Isaiah 1:19: "If you be willing, and will hearken to me, you shall eat the good things of the land." Likewise, there the kingdom of the Canaanites and Jebusites was promised; here the kingdom of heaven; hence, the kingdom of heaven "will draw near," into you. And therefore the teaching of Christ is called the New Testament, because there a new covenant was made between us and God concerning the kingdom of heaven; Jeremiah 31:31: "I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel, and with the house of Judah." Second, because the old law together with its promise also had a threat; Isaiah 1:19-20: "If you be willing, and will hearken to me, you shall eat the good things of the land: but if you will not, and will provoke me to wrath, the sword shall devour you." And Deuteronomy 28 has the same: where many blessings are promised to those who keep the law, and Moses threatens many curses to transgressors of the law. And this is so because the old was the law of fear, but the new is the law of love. Augustine: "a brief difference—fear and love." Hebrews 12:18: "For you are not come to a palpable and approachable fire, and a whirlwind, and gloom, and storm, and the sound of the trumpet, and the voice of words, which they that heard it excused themselves, that no word should be spoken to them." And therefore he says "the kingdom of heaven is at hand," namely, eternal blessedness. And he says "is at hand," because he who was giving it descended to us, since we were not able to ascend to God.

"And walking," etc. After he began to preach, he wished to have ministers of his preaching; hence here he calls them to himself. And concerning this he does two things, according as he calls two pairs of ministers. For first Peter and Andrew; second James and John. Concerning the first he does four things: first the place of the calling is described; second the condition of those called is set down, at the words "for they were fishermen"; third the calling itself, at the words "and he saith to them"; fourth their perfect obedience, at the words "and they immediately leaving their nets, followed him."

He says therefore "walking by the sea of Galilee." A fitting place: because, as the Gloss says, being about to call fishermen, he walks by the sea. But as for the mystical sense, it should be known that God's standing signifies eternity and immobility; his walking, temporal birth. By the fact, then, that walking he called disciples, it is signified that through the mystery of his incarnation he drew us to himself; Psalm 7:7: "Arise, O Lord, in the precept which thou hast commanded," that is, which thou hast disposed to be fulfilled, "and a congregation of people shall surround thee." And he says "of Galilee," by which is understood the turbulence of this world; Isaiah 57:20: "The heart of the wicked is like a raging sea, which cannot rest, and the waves thereof cast up dirt and mire." Christ bore the likeness of a sinner; Romans 8:3: "God sending his own Son, in the likeness of sinful flesh," and so on.

Next the condition of those called is described: first as to their number; second as to their names; third as to their act; fourth as to their occupation. He says therefore "he saw two," not with the eye of the body only, but also of the mind; for his sight is a regard of mercy; hence Exodus 3:7: "Seeing I have seen the affliction of my people that is in Egypt," and so on. And note that the same thing is signified by "two" and by "brothers": for both pertain to charity, which consists in the love of God and of neighbor. And therefore he chose them in pairs, and sent them in pairs to preach; and by this he wished spiritual charity to be signified, because charity is more firmly established when it is founded in nature; Psalm 132:1: "Behold how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity."

"Simon who is called Peter"—now indeed, but not then; for Christ afterward imposed this name on him, but first he promised it; John 1:42: "Thou shalt be called Cephas"; but he imposed it in Matthew 16:18: "Thou art Peter." "And Andrew." Every preacher ought to have these names. For Simon is interpreted "obedient"; Peter, "one who recognizes"; Andrew, "fortitude." And the preacher ought to be obedient, so that he can invite others to this, Proverbs 21:28: "An obedient man shall speak of victory"; one who recognizes, so that he may know how to instruct others: 1 Corinthians 14:19: "I had rather speak five words with my understanding, that I may instruct others"; strong, so that he not be terrified by threats; Jeremiah 1:18: "I have made thee this day a fortified city, and a pillar of iron, and a wall of brass"; Ezekiel 3:8: "I have made thy face stronger than their faces, and thy forehead harder than their foreheads: I have made thy face like an adamant and like flint."

There follows: "casting a net into the sea." Chrysostom asks why the Lord chose that hour. And he says it was so that an example might be given that we ought never to omit the service of God on account of our occupations. Or for this reason: because through this act was prefigured the act of future preachers, since through the words of those who preach men are drawn as if by nets. Their occupation is set down: "for they were fishermen." And it should be known that among all men, fishermen are the more simple; and the Lord wished to have men from the most simple condition, and to choose them, so that what was accomplished through them might not be attributed to human wisdom; 1 Corinthians 1:26: "See your vocation, brethren, that there are not many wise according to the flesh, not many mighty, not many noble; but the foolish things of the world hath God chosen, that he may confound the wise." And therefore he did not choose Augustine, or Cyprian the orator, but Peter the fisherman; and from a fisherman he won both an emperor and an orator.

"And he saith." Here the calling is set down, concerning which three things are to be considered: first he invites; second he promises leadership; third, a reward. He says therefore, "Come." This is from divine liberality alone, that he draws to himself; Ecclesiasticus 24:26: "Come over to me, all ye that desire me, and be filled with my generations"; below, 11:28: "Come to me, all you that labour, and are burdened, and I will refresh you." "After me," as if he were to say: I go, and you come after me, because I will be your leader; Proverbs 4:11-12: "I will show thee the way of wisdom, I will lead thee by the paths of equity: which when thou shalt have entered, thy steps shall not be straitened, and when thou runnest, thou shalt not meet with a stumblingblock"; Psalm 138:17: "But to me thy friends, O God, are made exceedingly honourable: their principality is exceedingly strengthened." "I will make"—as if to say, I will change your occupation into a greater one. Of these it is said, Jeremiah 16:16: "Behold I will send many fishers, saith the Lord, and they shall fish them," and so on. And he says "I will make," because preaching labors in vain outwardly unless the grace of the Redeemer is present inwardly; for they did not draw men by their own power, but by the operation of Christ. And therefore he says "I will make."

This indeed is the greatest dignity; hence Dionysius: nothing is more worthy in the office of men than to become a co-worker of God. For dignity consists solely in its own brightness. Now those approach nearer to that dignity who are so illumined that they illumine others. For although men who follow Christ do illumine others, and accomplish great things as regards justice, yet they assert the dignity of Christ with respect to one thing only; but the life of preachers does so with respect to two things; Daniel 12:3: "They that instruct many to justice, shall shine as stars for all eternity."

Their obedience is set down: "And they, leaving their nets and boat, followed him." And he shows their obedience with respect to three things. First, with respect to promptness, because they did not delay; hence "and they." Against those of whom Ecclesiasticus 5:8 speaks: "delay not from day to day"; Galatians 1:15-16: "But when it pleased him who separated me from my mother's womb, and called me by his grace, to reveal his Son in me, that I might preach him among the Gentiles, immediately I condescended not to flesh and blood." Isaiah 50:5: "The Lord God hath opened my ear, and I do not resist: I have not gone back." Second, with respect to readiness, because they left everything; for it is not the amount of possessions that must be weighed, but the disposition; for he leaves all things who leaves whatever he is able to have. But what necessity is there of leaving everything? Chrysostom: no one can possess riches and perfectly attain to the kingdom of heaven; for they are an impediment to virtue, since they diminish concern for eternal things, on account of which a man cannot perfectly cling to divine things. And therefore they must be given up; 1 Corinthians 9:25: "Every one that striveth for the mastery refraineth himself from all things," and so on. Third, with respect to execution, because they followed him: for it is not too great a thing to leave everything, but perfection consists in following him, which comes about through charity; 1 Corinthians 13:3: "And if I should distribute all my goods to feed the poor, and if I should deliver my body to be burned, and have not charity, it profiteth me nothing." For perfection does not consist of itself in outward things, namely poverty, virginity, and the like, except insofar as these are instruments toward charity; and therefore he says, "and they followed him."

Next the other calling is treated: "And going on from thence, he saw other two brethren, James the son of Zebedee, and John his brother." And first those called are described; second the calling is set down, at the words "and he called," etc.; third, the obedience of those called, at the words "and they, leaving their nets and their father, followed him." Those called are described in four ways: as to number, names, filial devotion, and poverty.

He says therefore, "And going on from thence, he saw other two brethren." Note that from the beginning he called brothers; and although he called many others, mention is made specially of these, because they were preeminent, and because he called them two by two; for the new law is founded in charity; hence also in the Old Testament he called two brothers, Aaron and Moses, because there too a commandment concerning charity was given. And because the new law is more perfect, therefore at its beginning a double number of brothers is called. "James the son of Zebedee, and John his brother." By these four is designated the teaching of the four Gospels, or the four virtues: for by Peter, who is interpreted "one who recognizes," the virtue of prudence; by Andrew, who is interpreted "manly," or "most strong," the virtue of fortitude; by James, who is interpreted "supplanter," the virtue of justice; by John, on account of his virginity, the virtue of temperance.

Filial devotion is set down, because they were with Zebedee their father. Chrysostom: their devotion is to be admired, for though poor, seeking their bread by the trade of fishing, they nevertheless did not abandon their aged father. Ecclesiasticus 3:8: "He that feareth the Lord, honoureth his parents." Poverty is designated in this, that they were mending their nets. Nonetheless, by those who were casting their nets are signified those who transact business in the world in their first age; by those who had already cast them and were mending them are signified those who have long transacted business in the world, and are already swallowed up by sin, and are called to Christ. Lamentations 3:27: "It is good for a man, when he hath borne the yoke from his youth."

"And he called them," inwardly and outwardly; Romans 8:30: "And whom he predestinated, them he also called." To call inwardly is nothing other than to supply help to the human mind when he wishes to convert us.

There follows, concerning their obedience: "and they, leaving their nets and their father, followed him." Note that the two mentioned above left only the boat, but these left their nets, boat, and father: in which it is signified that for Christ's sake we ought to give up all earthly occupations, which are designated by the net; 2 Timothy 2:4: "No man being a soldier to God, entangleth himself with secular business"; riches, or possessions, which are designated by the boat; below, 19:21: "If thou wilt be perfect, go sell what thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven: and come, follow me"; and carnal affection, which is signified by the father; Psalm 44:11: "Forget thy people and thy father's house." But in a mystical sense, by Zebedee is signified the world, which is interpreted "vehement flux."

But here there is a question: for it seems that these men sinned in leaving their father, who was old and poor, since children are bound to support their parents. And in general it is asked whether it is lawful for anyone to leave his parents in extreme need by entering religious life. It must be said that a counsel never takes precedence over a precept; but this, namely "Honor thy father and thy mother," Exodus 20:12, is a precept; and therefore if a father can in no way live unless helped by his son, the son ought not to enter religious life. But this was not the case with Zebedee, for he was able to help himself, and had what was necessary.

There is likewise a question of the letter. For Matthew here seems to be in contradiction with John and Luke: for John 1:28 says they were called near the Jordan; here it says near the sea of Galilee. Likewise Luke 5:10 says that he called Peter and Andrew, James and John, all together, although no mention is made of the other two in one place, because it is believed that they were there. Likewise there it is said that all were called together, here that they were called separately. But it must be known that the calling of the apostles was threefold. For first they were called to familiarity with Christ, and this is recounted in John 1, and this in the first year of Christ's preaching. Nor is it an obstacle that it is said afterward: "his disciples went up with him to Cana of Galilee," because according to Augustine they were not yet disciples then, but were to be disciples in the future: just as if it were said that the apostle Paul was born in Tarsus of Cilicia, though at that time he was not yet an apostle. Or it must be said that he speaks of other disciples, for all who believe in Christ are called disciples. Second, they were called to discipleship; and of this Luke chapter 5 speaks. The third calling was that they might cling to Christ totally; and of this it is spoken here; which is clear, according to Augustine, because Luke 5:11 has, concerning this, "and having brought their ships to land"; therefore they still had a boat, and took care of it, as though intending to return to it; but here it says, "and they, leaving all things," etc. And therefore it must be said that here he speaks of the final following.

It is the custom among kings that, once the army has been gathered, they proceed to war: thus Christ, having gathered the army of the apostles, proceeds to fight against the Devil through the office of preaching, in order to expel him from the world. Hence here the teaching and preaching of Christ is treated. And first Christ's preaching is set forth; second, the effect of the preaching, at the place "his fame went abroad into all Syria," etc. Concerning the first, he touches on three things: first, the diligence of the one teaching and the manner of teaching, and the confirmation of the doctrine proposed.

And the diligence is shown in two respects. First, that he did not seek his own rest; hence "he went about"; Romans 12:11: "not slothful in diligence." Second, that he was not a respecter of persons, of lands, or of towns, but went about all Galilee without distinction; Mark 1:38: "Let us go into the neighboring cities, that there also I may preach"; Psalm 102:22: "in every place of his dominion."

The manner, at the place "teaching in their synagogues." He says two things, "teaching" and "preaching": teaching the things that are to be done in the present, preaching of things to come; or, teaching those things which pertain to the instruction of morals — Isaiah 48:17: "I am the Lord thy God that teach thee profitable things" — preaching things to come; Isaiah 52:7: "How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of him that announceth and preacheth peace, that announceth good, that preacheth salvation." Or, teaching the natural forms of justice: for certain things are handed down in theology which natural reason itself dictates, namely justice and things of this kind — and as to this he says "teaching"; but other things exceed reason, such as the mystery of the Trinity and the like — and as to this he says "preaching."

But an objection is raised against what the Gloss says, that he taught the natural forms of justice, such as chastity and humility and the like: for natural virtues do not seem able to be called virtues, since virtues exist through grace. And it must be said that the inclination and the beginning are natural; but the perfection, by which a man is rendered pleasing, comes from grace, from political virtue, and from habituation.

"In their synagogues." Note two things. First, that he sought out the multitude, so that the preaching might profit more; Psalm 34:18: "I will give thanks to thee in a great church." Likewise, that he preached only to the Jews; Acts 13:46: "To you it behooved us first to speak the word of God." And "preaching the Gospel of the kingdom": not fables and curious things, but those things which pertained to the kingdom of God, and those things which would profit men.

Consequently the preaching is confirmed by miracles; Mark 16:20: "But they going forth preached everywhere, the Lord working withal, and confirming the word with signs that followed." Hence "healing." "Languor" can refer to bodily infirmities, "infirmity" to the infirmity of the soul: for the infirmities of the soul are not less than those of the body. Or, by "languors" are meant grave and long-lasting infirmities; by "infirmities," any other kind whatsoever; Psalm 102:3: "Who healeth all thy diseases"; Ecclesiasticus 10:12: "the physician cutteth short a brief languor." It is given to be understood also in this, that preachers ought to confirm their teaching by works; and if not by miracles, then by a virtuous life; Romans 15:18: "For I dare not to speak of any of those things which Christ worketh not by me, for the obedience of the Gentiles, by word and deed, by the power of signs and wonders, in the power of the Holy Spirit."

"And his fame went abroad into all Syria." Here the effect of the preaching is set forth: and it is threefold, namely the fame concerning his example, the trust which men had in him, and the devotion by which men followed him. He says, then, "his fame went abroad into all Syria." Syria is the region from Capernaum as far as the great sea: hence it was spread abroad even in the land of the Gentiles. This also pertains to preachers, that they should have a good testimony; Ecclesiasticus 41:15: "Take care of a good name"; 2 Timothy 2:15: "Carefully study to present thyself approved unto God, a workman that needeth not to be ashamed, rightly handling the word of truth." By Syria, moreover, can be understood the pride of the world, for it is so interpreted: and the fame of Christ was diffused throughout the whole world.

The trust, at the place "and they presented to him all that were ill at ease"; for they knew that he was able to heal; Jeremiah 17:14: "Heal me, O Lord, and I shall be healed; save me, and I shall be saved." And he says first "his fame went abroad," etc., and afterward, "they presented to him," etc., because when someone has a reputation for holiness, men more readily uncover to him the wound of their conscience.

"Taken with divers diseases and torments." By these grave infirmities spiritual infirmities are designated. By "languors" can be understood long-lasting infirmities, and thereby an infirmity persisting for a long time is signified; Ecclesiasticus 10:11: "a lingering disease is burdensome to the physician." And because some are burdened by infirmity, but others by the bitterness of pain, this is signified when he says "and taken with torments": and by this are signified those who have a conscience burdened and gnawing at them; Psalm 17:5: "The sorrows of death surrounded me, the sorrows of hell encompassed me."

"And those who had devils"; and this is what is said in Luke 6:1: "And they that were troubled with unclean spirits were cured." By this are understood those who worshipped idols; Psalm 95:5: "All the gods of the Gentiles are devils"; 1 Corinthians 10:20: "I would not that you should be made partakers with devils."

"Lunatics" are properly said of those who suffer an infirmity of a certain madness at the wane of the moon: and then they are seized by demons. And the Devil afflicts more at that time for two reasons. One is assigned by Jerome, and it is that he may bring the creature of God into disrepute; and this also happens in the effects of the magic art, by which demons are invoked under certain constellations, and the demons come for this purpose, that they may extol the creature and lead men into idolatry. The second reason is better, namely that the Devil can do nothing except through the powers of the body. But there is no doubt that lower bodies are altered according to the various alterations of the higher bodies. And therefore the Devil, when invoked, comes gladly at that time when he sees the higher bodies working toward that effect for which he is invoked. Now at the wane of the moon, as is evident, moisture fails; and therefore the wane of the moon contributes to such an infirmity, when the earth does not abound in humors; and therefore the Devil vexes more at that time: and this is "and lunatics." By these we can understand the inconstant — Ecclesiasticus 27:12: "A holy man continueth in wisdom as the sun: but a fool is changed as the moon" — those who have a resolve to live chastely, but are overcome by the passions, according to that saying of Romans 7:15: "For the good which I will, I do not; but the evil which I hate, that I do."

"And those that had the palsy." Those are properly called paralytics who have their limbs relaxed, so that they cannot have the use of their limbs. By these are signified the ignorant: and all these are cured by Christ; hence "and he cured them," namely, perfectly.

Consequently the third effect is set forth, namely the devotion of those who followed; hence "and there followed him great multitudes"; Psalm 7:8: "Arise, O Lord, in the precept which thou hast commanded, and a congregation of people shall surround thee." But it must be known that some followed him in different ways. For some, out of zeal for salvation, namely spiritual salvation, namely the apostles; hence above: "leaving all things, they followed him"; and below, 19:27: "Behold we have left all things, and have followed thee." Some, out of zeal for bodily health; Luke 6:17: "a great multitude of people from all Judea and Jerusalem, and the sea coast, both of Tyre and Sidon, who came to hear him, and to be healed of their diseases." Some, out of mere curiosity to see the miracles; John 6:2: "and a great multitude followed him, because they saw the signs which he did upon them that were diseased." Others in order to lay snares, as the Pharisees and Scribes; Jeremiah 20:10: "I heard the reproaches of many, and terror on every side."

"From Galilee." It is the province where Christ chiefly preached, and it is interpreted "migration." By this are signified those who ought to pass over from vices to virtues. "And Decapolis." It is the region where there are ten towns; and by this are signified those who strive for the observance of the ten commandments. "And from Jerusalem." Jerusalem is interpreted "vision of peace"; and it signifies those who come to Christ out of desire for peace; Psalm 118:165: "Much peace have they that love thy name." "And from Judea." Judea is interpreted "confession"; and it signifies those who come to Christ through the remission of sins; Psalm 113:2: "Judea became his sanctification." "And from beyond the Jordan"; and by this are signified those who come to Christ through Baptism: for Baptism was prefigured in the Jordan.