Commentary on Romans (Super Epistolam B. Pauli ad Romanos Lectura)

After the Apostle excluded the glory of the Jews which they had in the law, by which they preferred themselves to the Gentiles, here he excludes their glory as regards circumcision. And concerning this he does two things. First he resumes the question which he had proposed above, saying, What is the profit of circumcision? And because Abraham was the first to receive the commandment concerning circumcision, as is said in Genesis 17:10, therefore he repeats the question in the person of Abraham himself, saying: if it is so that God justifies the uncircumcision just as He justifies circumcision, what then shall we say that Abraham our father found according to the flesh? That is, according to carnal circumcision and according to the other carnal observances? It seems to be unfitting if it should be said that he found no profit, since it is said in Isaiah 47:17: "I am the Lord teaching you profitable things." Second, where he says "For if Abraham," etc., he responds to the question proposed. And he does two things. First he shows that Abraham did not find this through circumcision and the other works of the law, namely that he should be justified by it, but rather through faith. Second he commends his faith, where he says "who against hope," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows the proposition by an argument taken from the side of the divine acceptance; second, by an argument from the divine promise, where he says "For not through the law," etc. Concerning the first he does three things. First he proposes a certain conditional; second he proves the destruction of the consequent, where he says "For what does Scripture say," etc. Third, he proves the conditional itself, where he says "as also David," etc.

Concerning the first part, the Apostle intends to argue thus: if Abraham had been justified by the works of the law, he would not have glory before God; therefore he was not justified by works. He proposes therefore a conditional, saying: it was asked what Abraham found according to carnal circumcision, and it is manifest that he did not find this — that he should be justified by the works of the law — in the sense, namely, that his justice should consist in the works of the law; he has glory indeed, namely before men, who see external deeds, but not before God, who sees in secret, according to that saying in 1 Kings 16:7: "But God looks upon the heart." 1 Corinthians 3:21: "Let no one of you glory in men," etc. Whence against certain ones it is said in John 12:43: "They loved the glory of men more than the glory of God." But against this it can be objected, because from the habit of external works an interior disposition is generated, according to which even the heart of man is well disposed, so that it is prompt for acting well and delights in good works, as the Philosopher teaches in Book II of the Ethics. But it must be said that this holds in human justice, by which, namely, man is ordered to a human good. For the habit of this justice can be acquired through human works, but the justice which has glory before God is ordered to the divine good, namely of future glory, which exceeds human capacity, according to that saying in 1 Corinthians 2:9: "Into the heart of man there has not ascended what God has prepared for those who love Him." And therefore the works of man are not proportioned to causing the habit of this justice, but it is necessary that the heart of man first be justified interiorly by God, so that he may perform works proportioned to the divine glory.

Then, where he says "For what," etc., he destroys the consequent which was negative, by proving the opposite affirmation, namely that Abraham had glory before God. And this he proves through the authority of Scripture, which the Apostle first sets down; second he expounds it, where he says "But to him," etc. He says therefore first: I say Abraham to be so justified that he has glory before God — for what does Scripture say? Genesis 15:6: Abraham believed God promising him the multiplication of his seed. Ecclesiasticus 2:6: "Believe God, and He will recover you." "And it was reputed to him," namely by God, "unto justice." 1 Maccabees 2:52: "Abraham was found faithful in temptation." And thus it is clear that before God, by whom it was reputed to him unto justice that he believed, he has glory. It must be considered, however, that the justice which God reputes as written, He expressed not in some external work, but in the interior faith of the heart, which God alone beholds. Now since it is said that the act of faith is threefold, namely to believe God, to believe in God, and to believe unto God, he set down this act which is to believe God, which is the proper act of faith, showing its species. For to believe in God shows the order of faith to its end, which is through charity; for to believe in God is, by believing, to go into God, which charity effects. And thus it follows upon the species of faith. But to believe God shows the matter of faith, according as it is a theological virtue, having God for its object. And therefore this act does not yet attain to the species of faith, because if someone should believe that God exists through certain human reasonings and natural signs, he is not yet said to have the faith of which we speak, but only when from this very reason he believes that it was said by God — which is designated by saying "to believe God"; and from this faith is specified, just as any cognitive habit has its species from the reason by which it assents to something. For one having the habit of science is inclined to assent by one reason, namely through demonstration, and one having the habit of opinion by another reason, namely through dialectical syllogism.

Then, where he says "But to him who works," etc., he expounds the aforesaid authority as to what it says, "it was reputed to him unto justice," etc. And a twofold exposition of these words is touched upon in the Gloss. The first is according as they are referred to the final reward, concerning which it is shown first how it stands with respect to works, second how it stands with respect to faith, where he says "But to him who does not," etc. He says therefore first, that to him who works — namely, works of justice — the reward, of eternal recompense, concerning which it is said in Isaiah 40:10: "Behold, his reward is with him," is not reputed according to grace only, but according to debt, according to that saying in Matthew 20:13: "Did you not agree with me for a denarius?" But against this is what is said below in 6:23: "the grace of God is eternal life." And below in 8:18: "the sufferings of this time are not worthy to be compared to the glory to come." Thus therefore that recompense is not made according to debt, but according to grace. But it must be said that human works can be considered in two ways. In one way according to the substance of the works, and thus they have nothing condign, such that the reward of eternal glory should be rendered to them. In another way they can be considered according to their principle, namely as they are done from the impulse of God according to the purpose of God predestining; and according to this the aforesaid reward is owed to them according to debt, because, as is said below in 8:14: "those who are led by the Spirit of God, these are the sons of God; but if sons, also heirs."

Then, where he says "But to him," etc., he shows how the eternal reward stands with respect to faith, saying: "But to him who does not work" — namely, external works, for instance because he does not have time to work, as is clear in one baptized who dies immediately — "but believes in Him who justifies the ungodly," namely, in God, of whom it is said below, 8:18, "his faith is reputed" — namely alone, without external works — "unto justice," that is, so that by it he may be called just, and may receive the reward of justice, just as if he had done works of justice, according to that saying below, 10:10: "with the heart one believes unto justice," and this "according to the purpose of the grace of God," that is, according as God purposes from His grace to save men. Below, 8:28: "to those who according to His purpose are called saints." Ephesians 1:11: "who works all things according to the counsel of His will."

The other exposition is that this be referred to the justification of man. He says therefore "but to him who works," that is, if someone should be justified by works, justice itself would be imputed as a reward not according to grace, but according to debt. Below, 11:6: "But if by grace, now it is not of works; otherwise grace is no longer grace." "But to him who does not work" — namely, so as to be justified by his own works — "but believes in Him who justifies the ungodly" — this faith of his shall be computed unto justice according to the purpose of the grace of God — not indeed so that by faith he merits justice, but because the very act of believing is the first act of justice which God works in him. For from the fact that he believes in God justifying, he subjects himself to His justification, and thus receives its effect. And this exposition is the literal one, and according to the intention of the Apostle, who lays stress on this, that in Genesis 15:6 it is said "it was reputed to him unto justice," which is customarily said when that which is less on someone's part is reputed to him gratis, as if he had done the whole. And therefore the Apostle says that this reputation would have no place, if justice were from works, but it has place only insofar as it is from faith.

Then, where he says "as also David," etc., he proves the conditional premised, from the authority of the Psalm. Of which he first sets forth the sense; second he sets down its words, where he says "Blessed are they whose"; third he excludes a false understanding, where he says "the blessedness," etc. He says therefore: as also David says, that is, asserts, the blessedness of man to be that of him, namely, to whom God brings, that is gives, justice, received — that is, freely, without preceding works. Titus 3:5: "For not by works of justice which we have done." Now the blessedness of man is from God, according to that saying in Psalm 39:5: "Blessed is the man whose hope the Lord God is." Thus therefore it is manifest that he has glory before God who is not justified from the works of the law, as has been said.

Then, where he says "Blessed are they whose," etc., he sets down the words of David containing the aforesaid statement, and says that they are blessed whose sins are forgiven. And thus it is clear that they did not have prior good works from which they might obtain justice or blessedness. Now sin is threefold, namely original, actual mortal, and actual venial. First therefore, as to original sin, he says: "Blessed are they whose iniquities are forgiven." Here it must be considered that original sin is called iniquity, because it is a lack of original justice, by which, according to equity, the reason of man was subjected to God, the lower powers to reason, and the body to the soul; but through original sin this equity is taken away, because after reason ceased to be subject to God, the lower powers rebel against reason and the body is withdrawn from the obedience of the soul through corruption and death. Whence in Psalm 50:7: "Behold, for I was conceived in iniquities." In both cases, moreover, original sin is signified in the plural. Either because of the many men in whom original sin is multiplied, or rather because it virtually contains in itself, as it were, all sins. This kind of original sin, moreover, is said to be forgiven, because the guilt passes away when grace supervenes, but it remains in act, the tinder or concupiscence remaining, which is not wholly taken away in this life, but is remitted, or mitigated. Second, as to actual mortal sin, he says: "and whose sins are covered." Now sins are said to be covered from the divine sight, insofar as He does not look upon them so as to punish them. Psalm 84:3: "You have covered all their sins." Third, as to venial sin, he says: "Blessed is the man to whom the Lord has not imputed sin," so that by "sin" venial sins are understood, which, although they are light, nevertheless through many of them man is separated and removed far from God. 2 Chronicles 30:18-19: "The good Lord will be merciful to all who seek Him with their whole heart, and it shall not be imputed to them that they are less holy." These three, moreover, can also be distinguished otherwise. For in sin there are three things, of which one is the offense against God, and as to this he says: "Blessed are they whose iniquities are forgiven," according as man is said to forgive an offense done to him. Isaiah 40:2: "Her iniquity is forgiven." Another is the disordered act itself of the fault, which cannot not have been done once it has been perpetrated, but it is covered by the hand of divine mercy, so that it is held as if not done. Third, indeed, is the guilt of punishment, and as to this he says: "Blessed is the man to whom the Lord has not imputed sin," namely, unto punishment.

Then, where he says "The blessedness therefore," etc., he excludes a false understanding of the aforesaid authority. For a Jew could understand it thus, that the aforesaid grace of the remission of sins would not come about except to the circumcised. To exclude this, therefore, first the Apostle raises the question, saying: "this blessedness," namely, by which God gives justice without works, "does it remain only in the circumcision," that is, does it have place only in the circumcised, "or also in the uncircumcision," that is, in the Gentiles? It is manifest that it is in both, according to that which he says below, 10:10: "the same Lord is rich unto all," etc. Second, where he says "For we say," he assumes, to show this, the authority of Scripture, as if he should say, I ask this for this reason: "for we say," etc., that "faith was reputed to Abraham unto justice," Genesis 15:6. Third, from this authority he concludes the solution of the aforesaid question, yet under a question, saying: "How then was it reputed?" Namely, the faith of Abraham unto justice, "in circumcision," that is, when he was circumcised, "or in uncircumcision," that is, when he was uncircumcised? And he answers: "not in circumcision, but in uncircumcision." And this is manifest from the sequence of the narrative of Scripture. For in Genesis 15:6 it is read that faith was reputed to Abraham unto justice, but he is read to have received circumcision in Genesis 17:23. If therefore Abraham, while still existing uncircumcised, was justified through faith, it is manifest that the justice of faith, by which sins are freely remitted, is not only in circumcision, but also in uncircumcision, that is, in gentility.

Having shown that the blessedness of the remission of sins is not only in circumcision but also in uncircumcision, by the example of Abraham who was justified in the time of uncircumcision, here he responds to a certain objection. For someone could say: if Abraham was justified before circumcision, then he was circumcised without cause and in vain. To exclude this objection, therefore, he first proposes that circumcision was not the cause of righteousness but a sign; second, he shows what follows from this sign, at the place that he might be the father, etc.; third, he shows the manner in which it follows, not to these only, etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he proposes that circumcision is a sign. Genesis 17:11: "you shall circumcise the flesh of your foreskin, that it may be a sign of the covenant between me and you." Second he shows of what thing it is a sign, saying that it is a seal of the righteousness of faith, that is, of that righteousness which is through faith, which faith indeed was in uncircumcision, that is, which Abraham had while still existing uncircumcised. Now a thing is called a "seal" in two ways. In one way, as an express sign having a likeness to the thing signified, according to that word of Ezekiel 28:12: "you are the seal of likeness," etc. Now circumcision has an express likeness with the faith of Abraham, first indeed as regards the thing believed. For he believed in the multiplication of his seed, and therefore fittingly he received the sign in the member of generation. Second, as regards the effect of this faith, which is the removal of guilt, which is signified through the removal of the superfluous skin. In another way a "seal" is called a sign concealing something which is to be revealed to friends, as is clear in the case of a seal-ring; and according to this it is said in Apocalypse 5:9: "worthy is the lamb who was slain to receive the book and to open its seals." Under the seal of circumcision, therefore, was enclosed the secret of the incarnation of Christ from the seed of Abraham.

Next he shows what follows from what has been said. For it follows from this — that Abraham, justified in uncircumcision through faith, afterward received circumcision — that he might be the father not only of the circumcised but also of those believing in uncircumcision. And this is what he says, that he might be the father, that is, from the foregoing it follows that Abraham is the father of all who believe through uncircumcision, that is, who are in the state of uncircumcision. Or: Abraham is the father through uncircumcision, that is, through that which he had in uncircumcision, that it might be reckoned to them also unto righteousness, namely this, that they believe, just as it was reckoned to Abraham. And concerning this fatherhood it is said in Matthew 3:9: "God is able out of these stones," etc. And that he might be the father of circumcision, that is, of the circumcised, who derive their origin from him. Whence John 8:39: "Abraham is our father." Then he shows in what manner he is father even of the uncircumcised, namely through imitation. And this is what he says, that he might be, I say, the father not to those only who are of the circumcision, that is, who are circumcised, but also to those who follow the footsteps of the faith of our father Abraham, which was in uncircumcision, that is, which Abraham had while still uncircumcised. John 8:39: "if you are the children of Abraham, do his works."

And because mention is made here of circumcision, three things must be considered concerning it: namely why it was instituted, what power it had, and why it was changed. Concerning the first it must be considered that circumcision, like the other ceremonies of the law, was instituted for two reasons. First indeed for divine worship, to which men were disposed by ceremonies of this kind. And according to this, circumcision has a threefold cause of its institution, of which the first is to signify the faith and obedience by which Abraham subjected himself to God, namely that those who received the circumcision handed down from Abraham should observe his faith and obedience. For it is said in Hebrews 4:11 that Abraham was circumcised by faith; and therefore circumcision was made in the member of generation to signify his faith concerning future offspring, as has been said. The second is to express in a bodily sign that which was to be done spiritually, namely that just as the superfluous skin was cut off from the member of generation, which chiefly serves concupiscence, so also every superfluous concupiscence should be taken away from the heart of man, according to that word of Jeremiah 4:4: "be circumcised to the Lord, and take away the foreskin of your hearts," etc. The third is that by this sign that people worshipping God might be distinguished from all other peoples. And hence it is that the Lord commanded the sons of Israel to be circumcised, who were about to dwell among other nations, whereas before, remaining solitary in the desert, they had not been circumcised.

But another reason for circumcision and for all the ceremonial observances is taken by comparison to Christ, to whom they are compared as figure to truth and members to body, according to that word of Colossians 2:17: "which are a shadow of things to come, but the body is Christ's." Thus, therefore, through bodily circumcision is signified the spiritual circumcision to be accomplished through Christ. First indeed as regards the soul, insofar as through him the guilt of sins and concupiscence are cut off. Colossians 2:11: "in whom," that is Christ, "you were circumcised with a circumcision not made by hands, in the putting off of the body of the flesh, but in the circumcision of our Lord Jesus Christ." Second, as regards the body, namely when in the resurrection all passibility and mortality will be taken away from the bodies of the elect; and therefore circumcision was done on the eighth day, because it signifies the eighth age of those rising again — for the seventh is of those resting in Christ. Now there are six ages through which the world runs its course. Whence also circumcision is read to have been performed with stone knives, Joshua 5:2 and Exodus 4:25, to signify that the spiritual circumcision was to be accomplished through the rock, which is Christ, as is said in 1 Corinthians 10:4. Yet this was not universally observed, that circumcision had to be done with stone.

Concerning the second point, however, it must be known that, as the Gloss says here — and it is Bede's — "circumcision in the law provided the same saving aid of healing against the wound of original sin which Baptism has been accustomed to accomplish in the time of revealed grace." From which it is clear that the power of circumcision extended to the deletion of original sin. Some, however, say that grace was not conferred in circumcision, for there cannot be the grace of God without righteousness. Now the Apostle argues thus in Galatians 2:21: "if righteousness is through the law, then Christ died in vain," that is, without cause. And in the same way we can argue: if from circumcision there is justifying grace, Christ died in vain; but this cannot be, for the remission of sin never occurs without grace. Titus 3:7: "being justified, therefore, by his grace," etc. And therefore others say that in circumcision grace was given as regards its privative effects, namely the removal of guilt, but not as regards its positive effects, that is, the working of righteousness. But this also does not seem fitting; for the positive effects of any form precede, in the order of nature, the privative effects. For light does not drive away darkness except through this, that it illumines. And thus grace drives away guilt through this, that it justifies. Now when the prior is removed, the posterior is removed. And therefore it is better to say that circumcision, from the work performed itself, did not have an effective power, neither as regards the removal of guilt, nor as regards the working of righteousness, but was only a sign of righteousness, as the Apostle says here; but through the faith of Christ, of which circumcision was the sign, original sin was taken away and the help of grace was conferred for acting rightly.

Concerning the third point, however, it is already clear from what has been said why it was necessary for circumcision to be changed. For circumcision was a sign of the future. But the same sign does not befit the present, or the past and the future alike; and therefore Baptism is a sign of present grace, which has a more abundant and more useful effect of grace, because the closer and more present an agent is, the more efficaciously it operates.

Then, when he says "for not through the law," etc., he shows the proposition, namely that circumcision, or whatever work of the law, does not justify by virtue of the divine promise. And concerning this he does two things. First he sets forth what he intends; second he proves the proposition, at the place "for if they who are of the law," etc. The Apostle therefore supposes, first, on the authority of Genesis, that the promise was made to Abraham and to his seed, that he should be the heir of the world, that is, that all the nations of the world should be blessed in him, according to that word of Genesis 12:3: "in you shall be blessed," etc. Now he says "and to his seed," because this promise, even if it was not fulfilled in him, was nevertheless to be fulfilled in his seed. For it is said in Genesis 22:18: "in your seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed." Now this seed is principally understood as Christ, according to that word of Galatians 3:16: "to Abraham were the promises made, and to his seed. He does not say, 'and to seeds,' as of many, but as of one, 'and to your seed,'" etc. Because indeed it is shown in the one in whom it is fulfilled, that he should be heir of the world, according to that word of Psalm 2:8: "ask of me, and I will give you the nations for your inheritance." Secondarily, however, it is fulfilled in those who, through the grace of Christ, are spiritually the seed of Abraham. Below, 9:8: "they who are the children of the promise are accounted for the seed." They also, through Christ, are heirs of the world, insofar as all things redound to the glory of the elect. 1 Corinthians 3:22: "all things are yours," etc.

Concerning this promise he denies one thing and asserts another. He denies that a promise of this kind was made through the law. This indeed is said not on account of the promise itself, because at the time of the promise the law had not been given, but on account of the fulfillment of the promise, so that the sense is, that such a promise was made to Abraham not as to be fulfilled through the law, because, as is said in Hebrews 7:19, "the law brought nothing to perfection." But he asserts another thing, namely that a promise of this kind is to be fulfilled through the righteousness of faith, because "the saints through faith conquered kingdoms," Hebrews 11:33.

Then, when he says "for if," etc., he shows the proposition. And first as regards this, that the promise is not to be fulfilled through the law; second as regards this, that it is to be fulfilled through the righteousness of faith, at the place "therefore of faith," etc. Concerning the first he sets forth this argument: if the promise made to Abraham were to be fulfilled through the law, the faith of Abraham believing the promise would be void, because the promise made to him would be annulled; but this is unfitting, therefore so is the first. Concerning this he does two things. First he proposes the conditional; second he proves it, at the place "for the law," etc. Now the destruction of the consequent is manifest. He says therefore first that the promise was not made through the law. "For if they who are of the law are heirs" — that is, if, in order for some to share in the promised inheritance, it is required that they attain this from observance of the law — "faith is made void," that is, the faith is made empty by which Abraham believed God who was promising, as is said in Genesis 15:6. And this is unfitting, according to what is said in 1 Corinthians 15:14: "if Christ has not risen, our preaching is vain," etc. And why it would be void, he shows by adding "the promise is made of no effect," that is, is annulled, because it does not attain its effect — against what is said in Hebrews 11:11: "he judged him faithful who had promised," and here below in the present chapter it is said: "whatever God has promised, he is able," etc.

Then, when he says "for the law," he proves the aforesaid conditional through the effect or outcome of the law. And first he sets forth the effect or outcome of the law; second he proves it, at the place "for where there is no law," etc. Now he proves the conditional thus: if some promise is to be fulfilled through that which impedes the fulfillment of the promise, such a promise is annulled and the faith of the believer is made void; but the law impedes the attainment of the inheritance, for "the law works wrath"; therefore if the promise is to be fulfilled through the law, faith is made void, the promise is annulled. Now the law is said to work wrath, that is, vengeance, because through the law men were made worthy of the vengeance of God. 4 Kings 22:13: "great is the wrath of the Lord kindled against us, because our fathers did not hear the words of this book," namely of the law, etc. Now someone could understand that the law works wrath as regards the ceremonial observances kept in the time of grace, according to that word of Galatians 5:2: "if you be circumcised, Christ will profit you nothing." But what is said here must be understood also as regards the moral precepts — not indeed that the moral precepts of the law command something such that those who observe it are made worthy of the wrath of God, but occasionally, because it commands and does not furnish the grace to fulfill it, according to that word of 2 Corinthians 3:6: "the letter kills, but the spirit gives life," because indeed it inwardly helps our weakness, as is said below in chapter 8:26.

Then, when he says "for where there is no law," etc., he shows in what way it works wrath, saying "where there is no law, neither is there transgression," because even if someone, the law not having been given, could sin against that which is naturally just by doing it, nevertheless he is not called a transgressor unless he transgresses a law. Psalm 118:158: "I saw the transgressors and pined away," etc. And yet every sinner can be called a transgressor, insofar as he transgresses the natural law. Psalm 118:119: "I have accounted all the transgressors of the earth as transgressing." It is more grave, however, to transgress at once the law of nature and the written law, than the law of nature alone. And therefore, the law having been given without the aid of grace, transgression increased, and merited a greater wrath.

Having shown that the promise made to Abraham and his seed was not to be fulfilled through the law, here he shows that it is to be fulfilled through faith. And concerning this he does three things. First he shows by what means this promise is to be fulfilled; second he shows in whom it is to be fulfilled, at the words "to all the seed," etc.; third, by whom it is to be fulfilled, at the words "who gives life to the dead," and so on.

First, then, he concludes his proposition as it were from a division. For it seems necessary that the promise be fulfilled either through faith or through the law; but not through the law, because the promise would be made void. Hence he concludes "therefore is it of faith," namely that we obtain the promise, that we may be heirs of the world. John 5:4: "this is the victory that overcomes the world," and so on. And this he confirms by the contrary means to that which he had assumed above. For it was said that if righteousness were from the law, the promise would be made void; but if it is from faith, the promise remains firm on account of the power of divine grace justifying man through faith. And this is what he says, that the promise of God may be firm — not indeed through the operations of men, which can fail, but according to grace, which is infallible. 2 Corinthians 12:9: "My grace is sufficient for you," and so on. 2 Corinthians 1:20: "however many are the promises, in him," namely Christ, "they are," that is, they have their truth.

Then, when he says "to all the seed," etc., he shows in whom the aforesaid promise is fulfilled. And first he sets forth what he intends, and says that the aforesaid promise, to be thus fulfilled through faith, is made firm through grace. "To all the seed," that is, to every man who is in any manner whatsoever the seed of Abraham. Ecclesiasticus 44:11f: "with their seed good things remain, a holy inheritance are their grandchildren." Second, at the words "not to that only," etc., he explains what he had said, "to all the seed." For there is a certain carnal seed, according to John 8:33: "we are the seed of Abraham." There is another, spiritual seed, according to Matthew 3:9: "God is able out of these stones," that is, out of the Gentiles, "to raise up children to Abraham"; but only the carnal seed of Abraham kept the law, whereas the spiritual seed also imitates his faith. And thus, if the promise were through the law alone, it would not be fulfilled in all the seed, but only in the carnal; but because it is fulfilled through faith, which is common to all, it is plain that it is fulfilled in all the seed.

Third, at the words "who is the father," etc., he proves what he had supposed, namely that the seed of Abraham is not only that which is from the law but also that which is from faith, by the authority of Scripture; of which he first sets forth the sense, saying, "who," namely Abraham, "is the father of us all," that is, of all believers, whether Jews or Gentiles. Above, in the same place: "that he might be the father of all believers." Isaiah 51:2: "look unto Abraham your father." Second, he adduces the authority, saying, "as it is written," Genesis 17:4, "because I have made you the father of many nations." Another text has "I have appointed you," which does not change the sense. Ecclesiasticus 44:20: "Abraham, the great father of a multitude of nations." Third, at the words "before God," etc., he explains what he had said. For "I have made you" was said as though already fulfilled what was to be fulfilled long afterward; but things which are future in themselves are present in the providence of God, according to Ecclesiasticus 23:29: "to the Lord our God, before they were created, all things are known; so also after they are perfected he beholds all things." And therefore the Apostle says that what was said, "I have made you," must be understood "before God," that is, in his presence, "in whom you believed." For Abraham had believed God foretelling future things, as if he saw them present, because, as it is said in Hebrews 11:1: "faith is the substance of things to be hoped for, the evidence of things not appearing."

Then, when he says "who gives life to the dead," etc., he shows by whom this promise is to be fulfilled, saying: "who," namely God, "gives life to the dead," that is, to the Jews, who were dead in sins, acting against the law — he gives life through faith and grace, that they may obtain the promise of Abraham. John 5:21: "as the Father raises up the dead and gives life," and so on. And "he calls the things that are not," that is, he calls the Gentiles, namely to grace, "as the things that are," that is, as the Jews. Below, chapter 9:25: "I will call that which was not my people," and so on. Now he signifies the Gentiles by "the things that are not," because they were utterly estranged from God. As it is said in 1 Corinthians 13:2: "if I have not charity, I am nothing." And thus by this calling the promise of Abraham will be fulfilled even in the Gentiles.

Or what he says, "and he calls the things that are not," is not understood of temporal calling, but of the calling of eternal predestination, because even those who are not, are called and chosen as if they were. Ephesians 1:4: "he chose us in him before the foundation of the world." And of this calling it is said below, 9:12: "not from works, but from him who calls, it was said, that the elder shall serve the younger." Or, he here calls "calling" the simple knowledge or cognition of God, by which he knows future things, which are not yet in act, as though present. And in this way "calling" is taken in Psalm 147:4, where it is said: "who numbers the multitude of the stars," and so on. And according to this sense, what is said here is introduced on account of what was said above, "before God, in whom you believed." For two things seemed to stand against what was said, "I have made you the father of many nations." Of these, one was that Abraham himself was as it were dead on account of old age, as will be said below. And against this he says "who gives life to the dead." The other is that those many nations did not yet exist. And against this he adds, "and calls the things that are not as the things that are."

Then, when he says "who against hope," he commends the faith of Abraham. And first he shows the greatness of his faith; second, its efficacy or fruit, at the words "therefore it was also reckoned," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows the greatness of Abraham's faith with regard to the promise of the seed to be multiplied; second, with regard to the further promise of the seed to be exalted, at the words "in the further promise," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows his faith to have been great; second he shows it to have been firm, at the words "and he was not weak in faith," and so on.

Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth the greatness of Abraham's faith, saying: "who," namely Abraham, "believed in this hope," that he might become the father of many nations, but against another hope. Concerning which it must be considered that hope imports a certain expectation of a future good; and this certainty is sometimes from a human or natural cause, according to 1 Corinthians 9:10: "he who plows ought to plow in hope." But sometimes the certainty of the one expecting is from a divine cause, according to Psalm 30:2: "in you, Lord, have I hoped," and so on. This good, then, that Abraham should become the father of many nations, had its certainty on the part of God who promised, but the contrary appeared from a natural or human cause. Therefore he says, "who against hope," namely of natural or human cause, "believed in hope," namely of the divine promise. This he sets forth secondly, saying, "according to what was said to him," namely Genesis 22:17: "so shall your seed be, as the stars of heaven and as the sand of the sea." Now both of these are adduced on account of the likeness of an innumerable multitude. For, as to the stars, it is said in Deuteronomy 1:10: "the Lord your God has multiplied you, and today you are as the stars of heaven." As to the sand, it is said in 3 Kings 4:20: "Judah and Israel are innumerable as the sand of the sea." Yet some difference can be observed between the two, so that the just, who were of the seed of Abraham, are compared to the stars, Daniel 12:3: "those who instruct many unto righteousness, as the stars for everlasting eternity." But sinners are compared to the sand, because they are oppressed by the waves of the world as by a kind of sea, Jeremiah 5:22: "I have set the sand as the bound of the sea."

Then, when he says "and he was not weak," he shows the firmness of Abraham, which he first sets forth, saying, "and he was not weak." For just as temperance is shown not to be weak when it is not overcome by great desirable things, so faith is shown not to be weak, but strong, when it is not overcome by great difficulties. 1 Peter 5:9: "whom resist, strong in faith." Second, at the words "nor did he consider," etc., he sets forth the difficulties from which it is shown that his faith was not weak.

And first indeed on the part of Abraham himself, when he says "he did not consider," namely so as to call the promise into question, "his own body now dead," namely because the generative power in him was already mortified on account of old age, whence he says "when he was now about a hundred years old." For it was to Abraham when he was a hundred years old that Isaac was born, as is found in Genesis 21:5. Now a year before, a son had been promised to him, according to Genesis 18:10: "returning I will come to you at this time, and Sarah shall have a son." But it seems that his body was not dead as regards the generative power, since even after the death of Sarah he took Keturah as wife, who bore him sons, as it is said in Genesis 25:1. Some therefore say that the generative power was dead in him as regards this, that he could generate from an old woman, but not as regards this, that he could generate a son from a young woman. For old men are wont to beget offspring from young women, but not from old women, who are less apt for conceiving. But it seems better to say that the power of generating was miraculously restored to Abraham, both with respect to Sarah and with respect to all women.

Second, he sets forth the difficulty on the part of his wife, when he says "and the deadened womb of Sarah," namely he did not consider it so as to disbelieve. Now he says "deadened" with regard to the act of generating, both on account of barrenness and on account of old age. For the manner of women had already ceased to be with her, as it is said in Genesis 18:11. And therefore in Isaiah 51:2, where it is said: "look unto Abraham your father and unto Sarah who bore you," in order to show the deadness and coldness of both, he prefaced it saying: "look unto the rock from which you were hewn, and to the hole of the pit from which you were cut."

Then, when he says "in the further promise also of God," etc., he commends the faith of Abraham with regard to the repeated promise concerning the exaltation of the seed. And first he sets forth the firmness of his faith; second, the cause of that firmness, at the words "giving glory to God." He says therefore first, "in the further promise also of God," that is, in his repeated promise, either concerning the multitude of the seed which he promised, first indeed in Genesis 15:5, saying: "look up to heaven and number the stars if you can," and below, in chapter 17:4: "you shall be the father of many nations," and again below, 22:17: "I will multiply your seed as the stars of heaven." Or it is to be understood "in the further promise of God," that is, in the repeated promise concerning the exaltation of his seed, because when he had said, "I will multiply your seed," he immediately adds: "your seed shall possess the gates of your enemies, and in your seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed." In this promise of God indeed he did not waver, that is, he did not doubt through distrust, namely so as to distrust the truth of the divine further-promise. James 1:6: "he who wavers is like a wave of the sea," and so on. But "he was strengthened in faith," that is, he clung to faith mightily. 1 Peter, last chapter: "whom resist, strong in faith."

Accordingly, when he says "giving glory to God," he assigns the reason for the firmness of his faith, saying: he was strengthened, I say, in faith, "giving glory to God," inasmuch as he considered, namely, his omnipotence. Psalm 146:5: "great is his power," and so on. Whence here too it is added, "being most fully persuaded that whatsoever God has promised, he is able also to perform." Wisdom 12:18: "for power is present with you when you will." From this it is clear that whoever is not firm in the faith of God, derogates, as far as is in himself, from the divine glory, either as regards his truth, or as regards his power.

Then, when he says "and it was reckoned to him," he commends the faith of Abraham with regard to its effect. And first he sets forth the effect which it had in him, saying: "therefore," namely because Abraham believed this very thing so perfectly, "it was reckoned to him unto righteousness." Maccabees 2:52: "and it was reckoned to him unto righteousness."

Second he shows the effect which his faith has also in others. And concerning this he does three things. First he sets forth the likeness of the effect, saying: "now it is not written for him alone, that it was reckoned to him unto righteousness," as though we should reckon that faith was reckoned unto righteousness to Abraham alone, "but it was written for us also," to whom it "shall be reckoned," namely faith, "unto righteousness." Below, 15:4: "whatsoever things were written, were written for our instruction." So then it was written on his account, that it might be for us an example, and on our account, that it might be for us a hope of justification.

Second, at the words "to us who believe in him," he shows the likeness of the faith. For the faith of Abraham was reckoned unto righteousness when he believed that his own dead body, and the deadened womb of Sarah, could be given life for the procreation of children. It shall be reckoned also to us, who believe in him who raised our Lord Jesus Christ from the dead: and in God the Father, to whom he himself says in Psalm 40:11: "but you, Lord, have mercy on me and raise me up." And because the power of the Father and the Son is the same, he himself also rose by his own power. Now that this faith justifies is found below, 10:9: "if you confess with your mouth the Lord Jesus, and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you shall be saved."

Third, at the words "who was delivered up," etc., he assigns the cause why faith in the resurrection of Christ justifies, saying: "who," namely Christ, "was delivered up," namely unto death, by God the Father — below, 8:31: "God did not spare his own Son, but delivered him up for us all"; and by himself, Ephesians 5:25: "he delivered himself up for us"; and by Judas, John 19:11: "he who delivered me to you has the greater sin"; and by the Jews, Matthew 20:19: "they will deliver him to the Gentiles to be mocked." "And he rose again for our justification," that is, that by rising he might justify us. Below, 6:4: "as Christ rose from the dead through the glory of the Father, so we also should walk in newness of life."

And that he was delivered up unto death for our offenses seems manifest from this, that by his death he merited for us the blotting out of sins, but by rising he did not merit, because in the state of the resurrection he was not a wayfarer, but a possessor. And therefore it must be said that the death of Christ was salutary for us, not only by way of merit but also by way of a certain efficient causality. For since the humanity of Christ was in a certain way the instrument of his divinity, as Damascene says, all the passions and actions of Christ's humanity were salvific for us, inasmuch as they proceeded from the power of the divinity. But because an effect bears some likeness to its cause, he says that the death of Christ, by which mortal life was extinguished in him, is the cause of the extinguishing of our sins; but his resurrection, by which he returns to a new life of glory, he says is the cause of our justification, through which we return to newness of righteousness.