Literal Commentary on Job (Expositio super Iob ad litteram)

"I made a covenant," etc. After Job had narrated his former prosperity and his subsequent adversity, here he consequently shows his innocence, lest it be believed that he fell into adversities on account of sins. He begins, however, to show his innocence by his immunity from the sin of luxury (lust), which involves several elements; for this sin is set on a slippery place, such that unless one avoids its beginnings, one can scarcely draw back one's foot from what follows. Now the first thing in this sin is the gaze of the eyes, by which a beautiful woman is looked upon, and especially a virgin; the second is thought; the third, delight; the fourth, consent; the fifth, the deed. Job therefore wished to exclude the beginnings of this sin so as not to be entangled in it; hence he says, "I made a covenant" — that is, I made firm in my heart, as pacts are made firm — "with my eyes," from whose gaze, namely, concupiscence for women arises, so as to abstain from looking upon women to such a degree "that I would not so much as think upon a virgin" — that is, so that I would not even attain the first interior degree, namely thought; for he saw that it would be difficult, if he fell into the first, namely into thought, that he would not slip into the others, namely into delight and consent.

Then he shows why he avoided this sin so carefully, and first he assigns the reason from the fact that through the sin of lust a man appears above all to depart from God: for man draws near to God through spiritual acts, which are most greatly impeded by venereal delight; hence he adds, "For what portion would God have from above in me?" As if to say: God has a portion in me only insofar as my mind is caught up to higher things; but if through lust my mind is cast down to carnal delight, God will have no portion in me from above. Now it sometimes happens that even the lustful think something spiritually about God for a moment, but soon, through the concupiscence of delight, they are called back down to the depths; hence the portion of God in them cannot be firm as an inheritance; hence he adds, "and an inheritance" — that is, a firm possession, in me, namely, once I have slipped down to lower things — "the Almighty from on high" — that is, he who dwells on high — "would not be able to have"; hence it is fitting that his inheritance be in those who seek sublime things, namely spiritual things, and not in those who descend to carnal things.

Second, he shows the cause why he avoided the sin of lust from the harm it inflicts upon a man, which is twofold: one indeed bodily, since through the sin of lust a man incurs danger to his person and his goods; hence he adds, "Is not ruin for the iniquitous?" As if to say: the iniquitous man who is entangled in this sin goes to ruin. The other harm is the impediment to good works; hence he adds, "and estrangement for those who work iniquity?" For because vehement delight draws the mind to itself all the more, hence it is that men given over to lust depart from good works, and also from good preachings.

Third, he assigns a cause which he considers on the part of divine providence, which foresees all the deeds of men, and so no one can be immune from punishment; hence he adds, "Does he not consider my ways" — that is, the process of my works, for the sake of rewarding? Nor does he know only the total process, but also the individual parts of that process; hence he adds, "and number all my steps?" — that is, he examines by his judgment even all the small things which appear reprehensible in my acts, and so I would not go unpunished for them.

Second, he cleanses himself from the vice of deceit, using in this and in all that follows a certain oath made by way of imprecation, whereby, namely, a man, if what is said is not true, binds himself to a punishment; hence he says, "If I have walked" — that is, if I have proceeded — "in vanity" — that is, in some falsity: for those things are called vain which do not have solidity, and the greatest solidity is through truth. But how one walks in vanity he shows by adding, "and my foot has hastened to deceit" — that is, my affection, and whatever other power of the soul is a principle of motion. And he significantly says "has hastened to deceit," because, namely, a man by certain deceitful paths intends to obtain quickly what would be obtained with great difficulty by the way of truth. Now that someone walks without deceit can be considered from the inspection of the rectitude of justice, from which the deceitful man declines; hence he adds, "Let him weigh me in a just balance" — namely God — so that from his justice it may be discerned whether I have proceeded in deceit. But since deceit consists chiefly in the intention of the heart, only he can judge of deceit to whom the intention of the heart is manifest, namely God; hence he adds, "and let God know my simplicity" — which, namely, is opposed to the duplicity of deceit; and he says "let God know," not as though God were to know it anew, but as though he were to make others know it anew, or because in the reason of his justice he had known this from eternity.

And because he had universally excluded deceit from himself, he descends to certain special sins by which someone deceitfully lies in wait for the goods of another, which indeed occurs both in theft and in adultery. For in theft someone deceitfully lies in wait for the goods possessed by his neighbor, and this he excludes from himself, saying, "If my step has turned aside from the way" — namely of justice, by contemning it; from which it follows that a man looks upon his neighbor's goods with a covetous eye in order to seize them; hence he adds, "if my eye has followed my heart" — that is, my desire — as if to say: if my eye has aimed at possessing what my heart desired. Third, it happens that a man, having contemned justice and directed his intention to acquiring what his heart covets, applies his hand to seizing another's goods; hence follows, "and a stain has clung to my hands" — namely through the taking away of another's property. Now it is just that if someone seizes another's goods, his own goods too should be seized by others; hence he adds, "let me sow, and let another eat" — as if to say: if I have seized another's goods, let my own goods be seized by others, which is an oath of imprecation. Now men are wont to seize others' goods in order to gather riches for their sons, according to that word of Nahum 2:12, "The lion caught enough for his cubs"; and therefore it is just that for a man who seizes others' goods, not only should his own goods be plundered, but also his children should perish; hence he adds, "and let my offspring be rooted out" — to whom, namely, the plunder would have seemed to have been preserved.

But in adultery a man deceitfully lies in wait for the wife of his neighbor, in which snares a certain deception of the heart precedes, since, namely, reason is darkened through concupiscence; hence he adds, "if my heart has been deceived over a woman" — namely another man's, to be coveted; and since the heart, once conquered by concupiscence for the woman, is consequently led to try by whatever deceits to possess the woman desired, he adds, "and if I have lain in wait at my neighbor's door" — namely in order to abuse his wife. Now he who defiles another's wife by adultery seems justly to be punished in that his own wife too should be defiled by others; hence he adds, "let my wife be the harlot of another" — that is, let her show herself venal to others; from which it follows that others should abuse her; hence he adds, "and let others bow down over her" — namely, by committing adultery. But why he avoided this sin he shows by adding, "for this is a heinous crime" — because, namely, it is against the ordinance of God who joined man and woman in marriage; and, "if human justice be considered, it is a very great iniquity" — because, namely, the greater the good that is stolen, the greater the injustice: for if someone were to steal an ox, the iniquity would be greater than if he stole a sheep, hence it is also punished with a greater penalty, as is found in Exodus 22:1; but he who commits adultery takes away from him the greatest thing, namely his wife who is one flesh with him, and certain offspring, and consequently the whole succession of his patrimony, which on account of adultery sometimes passes to a stranger; hence it is added, "it is a fire" — namely adultery — "devouring even to consumption" — because, namely, it defrauds a man of his whole patrimony, as has been said — "and rooting out all his increase" — since, namely, it makes the succession of his sons uncertain; hence it is said in Ecclesiasticus 23:32, "Every woman that leaveth her husband shall sin, in that she setteth up an inheritance by a strange marriage."

Thus, therefore, after he had cleared himself of injustice as regards not having done injury to others, neither in taking away their goods nor in abusing a person joined to another, he consequently excuses himself for not having incurred injustice through a defect of justice; hence he adds, "If I have despised to submit to judgment with my manservant and my maidservant, when they had a dispute against me" — as if to say: if I have despised to render justice to my lesser ones, let this and that heavy thing befall me. But why he did not despise to submit to judgment with his servants he shows by adding, "when the Lord God shall rise up to judge" — that is, when he shall appear about to judge, he whose judgment is now despised — "I would have no one to whose help or counsel I might flee"; nor could I even answer God reasonably in judgment; hence he adds, "and when he shall inquire" — that is, when he shall examine my deeds — "what shall I answer him?" — that is, what reason will I be able to give as to why I refused to submit to judgment with my servants? As if to say: none. And this he shows consequently through the fact that all men naturally have the same condition; hence he adds, "Did not he who made me in the womb also make him?" As if to say: I have the same soul as my servants, created by God; my body too was formed by the same divine power; hence he adds, "and did not one and the same form me in the womb?" — namely God, who also formed him; and therefore it is manifest that it is a care of God how I should treat him.

Having shown, therefore, that he was neither lustful nor unjust, he consequently shows that he was not unmerciful, which indeed he first shows from the fact that he did not withhold benefits from the wretched. Now some are wont immediately from the start to deny to the poor man asking what he asks; this he excludes from himself, saying, "If I have denied to the poor what they wished." Others do not deny, but defer giving the gift; this he excludes from himself, saying, "and have made the eyes of the widow wait." Others neither deny nor defer giving what is asked, but would give nothing of their own accord; but this he excludes from himself, showing that he did not wish even to use small things alone without sharing them with others; hence he adds, "if I have eaten my morsel alone, and the fatherless has not eaten of it" — and it is to be understood: let this or that heavy thing befall me. Now it is to be considered that he speaks very significantly: for the poor are wont not only to ask but even to press their suit, hence the benefit of mercy is not withheld from them except by an utter denial; but widows do ask, yet fear to press their suit, and therefore unless help is given to them quickly, they are deprived of the benefit of mercy; but orphans do not even dare to ask, hence it is fitting that mercy be extended to them even though they do not ask.

But why he was so merciful he shows from two things: first indeed from an ancient custom which he began from boyhood; hence he adds, "for from my infancy mercy grew up with me" — for the more he grew in years, the more he was exercised in works of mercy; second, because he had a natural inclination toward mercy, just as different men are wont to have certain natural inclinations toward different virtues; hence it is added, "and it came forth with me from my mother's womb" — because, namely, from my first begetters I was so disposed as to be prompt to show mercy.

Now there is wont to be a twofold impediment to mercy. The first of these is contempt for the wretched man, whom one does not reckon worthy of pity: for it is customary that those clothed in mean garments be despised, and those who wear costly garments be honored; hence it is said in Ecclesiasticus 19:27 (that the clothing of the body declares the man). But this impediment to mercy he excludes from himself, adding, "if I have despised him that was passing by" — that is, any stranger passing along the road — "and the poor man" — namely, one known — "for want of a covering" — supply: let this or that befall me. Nor did he only not despise one lacking clothing, but he even provided clothing; hence he adds, "if his sides have not blessed me" — namely, the sides which he had uncovered and covered, and thus they were the occasion of his blessing him; and the reason for this he expounds by adding, "and he was warmed with the fleece of my sheep" — namely, by clothing furnished to him — and the same thing is to be understood as above.

Now the other impediment to mercy is confidence in one's own power, from which it seems to a man that he can burden others with impunity, and especially inferior persons; and this he excludes from himself, saying, "if I have lifted up my hand against the fatherless" — namely, in order to oppress him — "even when they saw me in the gate" — that is, in the place of judgment — "the superior one" — that is, the more powerful. Now it is just that a man be deprived of the members he uses for injustice; and therefore he adjoins as a penalty the loss not only of the hand but also of the arm, in which the hand is rooted, and of the shoulder, to which the arm is joined; hence he adds, "let my shoulder fall from its joint, and let my arm with its bones be broken" — if, namely, I have abused my hand for the oppression of the poor.

He then shows consequently why, although he was more powerful, he did not lift his hand against the fatherless: because, namely, even if he would not have refrained on account of man, he would nevertheless have refrained on account of God, whose judgments he also feared; hence he adds, "for I always feared God as waves swelling over me" — and he speaks by way of likeness to those sailing on the sea who, as the waves swell above the height of the ship, fear lest they be submerged by them: likewise he feared the divine threats as swelling waves; and he also yielded to the divine authority, by which the oppression of orphans is forbidden; hence he adds, "and his weight" — that is, the authority of God protecting orphans — "I could not bear" — that is, without inclining myself to it.

"If I have thought gold my strength." After Job had excused himself of injustice and of unmercifulness, here he consequently excuses himself of a disordered affection toward riches, which indeed occurs in two ways: in one way, through the fact that a man trusts too much in riches, and this he excludes, saying, "if I have thought gold my strength" — so as to reckon my virtue chiefly in riches — "and if I have said to fine gold" — that is, to the purest gold — "'My confidence'" — namely, that you are — contrary to what the Apostle says in 1 Timothy, last chapter: "Charge the rich of this world not to trust in the uncertainty of riches." Second, a man's affection is disordered concerning riches through the fact that he rejoices too much in riches; and so, as regards riches already possessed, he adds, "if I have rejoiced" — namely, inordinately — "over my many riches," which I possessed as my own; but as regards the acquisition of riches he says, "and because my hand has found very much" — for men are wont to rejoice more over things which they newly acquire.

Then he excuses himself from the sin of superstition, which is against God; now in antiquity idolaters worshipped the stars of heaven, and especially the luminaries, on account of their great brightness, and this he excludes from himself, saying, "if I have seen the sun when it shone, and the moon moving in brightness" — on account of which, namely, they are worshipped by idolaters — "and my heart has rejoiced in secret" — as being, as it were, devoted to them in interior worship; and as regards exterior worship he adds, "and I have kissed my hand with my mouth" — as it were in reverence of them. And why he avoided this he shows by adding, "which is a very great iniquity": for if it is iniquitous that what is owed to one man be shown to another, it seems especially iniquitous that the worship owed to God be shown to a creature; and because it is impossible that a man should render latria to God and to a creature at the same time, therefore he adds, "and a denial against the most high God": for although the name of God is by participation attributed to certain creatures, yet the worship of latria is owed to God alone, the most high, who is denied to be most high if such worship is shown even to others.

These things having been premised, which pertain to common justice, he adjoins certain things which pertain to the perfection of virtue, among which he first excludes hatred of enemies, which is shown above all when someone rejoices either at his total ruin, and this he excludes, saying, "if I have rejoiced at the ruin of him that hated me," or at some evil befalling him, which he excludes by adding, "and have exulted that evil had found him" — that is, had come upon him unexpectedly. And why he avoided this he shows by adding, "for I have not given my throat to sin, by wishing a curse to his soul": for naturally a man desires the things in which he rejoices, and expresses his interior desire in words; it follows, therefore, that if someone rejoices at another's evils, he desires them, and consequently imprecates evil upon him by cursing.

Then he shows the perfection of his virtue as regards the superabundance of goods which he showed to others, and first indeed as regards his household he says, "if the men of my tent have not said, 'Who will give us of his flesh, that we may be satisfied?'" — for when some animal is delightful for use in eating, men desire to be satisfied with its flesh; through this, therefore, he gives to understand that his manner of life was so pleasing to his household that they desired to be satisfied with his bodily presence. But as regards strangers he adds, "the stranger did not remain outside" — that is, without being received into my house — "my door was open to the traveler" — that is, so that entry was not difficult for him.

He proceeds further to show the perfection of his virtue as regards the exclusion of undue fear. Now men are wont sometimes, on account of the fear of confusion, to hide their fault against their own justice, either by denying it, which he excludes from himself, saying, "if I have hidden my sin as man does" — that is, as men are wont to do — that is, by denying it unduly; or by excusing it, or even by cloaking it by certain cunning devices; hence he adds, "and have concealed in my bosom" — that is, through some hidden dissimulation — "my iniquity," when, namely, I was bound to confess it.

He then excludes from himself a disordered fear of bodily dangers, which indeed is wont especially to proceed from a multitude rising up against a man, according to that word of Ecclesiasticus 26:5, "My heart hath feared three things: the reproach of the city, and the gathering together of the people," etc.; hence he says, "if I have been afraid at a very great multitude"; and there is added to this fear, if a man is despised by his kinsmen, from whom he ought to have been helped; hence he adds, "and the contempt of my kinsmen has terrified me." Now men who are fearless are wont to go to the contrary extreme through presumption, and sometimes indeed they speak at least in words against the stronger, and this he excludes from himself, saying, "and I have not rather kept silence"; but sometimes they proceed further to invade presumptuously the multitude of adversaries, but this he excludes, saying, "nor have I gone out of the door."

And because he had said many great things about himself, he invokes the divine testimony upon these things; hence he adds, "who will grant me a helper" — namely, one who might intercede with me to God? And to what end he wishes to be helped he shows by adding, "that the Almighty may hear my desire"; and what his desire is he expounds by adding, "and that he who judges" — namely, all human acts, both interior and exterior — "may write a book" — namely, of my accusation or commendation concerning the aforesaid things. And if indeed through the testimony of this book — that is, through a certain manifestation of the truth — I should appear guilty, I am willing to bear the penalty; hence he adds, "that I may carry it upon my shoulder." But if, once the truth is made manifest, I should appear commendable, then I shall receive the crown of the reward; hence he adds, "and put it about me as a crown" — by which he gives to understand that his desire is that he who was unjustly condemned by his friends should be reserved for the just judgment of God. And of the aforesaid book of divine testimony he promises that he will not contradict it; hence he adds, "at every one of my steps" — that is, at the process of my works — "I will pronounce it" — that is, I will confess the truth of the divine testimony; nor will he refuse to submit to the sentence according to the divine testimony; hence he adds, "and offer it as to a prince" — namely, bearing it gladly, that he be dealt with according to the divine testimony.

Then he excludes from himself the vice of excessive covetousness even in acquiring things from his own possessions, which indeed is shown in two ways: in one way, through the fact that a man strives, by excessive cultivation, to extract superfluous fruits from his possessions, and to exclude this he adds metaphorically, "if my land cry out against me" — as though I had not allowed it to rest but had cultivated it too much; hence he adds, "and its furrows weep with it" — and he speaks by way of likeness to a man who is too much oppressed. In the other way, excessive covetousness is shown through the fact that a man denies to his workers the wage of their labor; hence he adds, "if I have eaten its fruits without money" — namely, without paying the workers — "and have afflicted the soul of its farmers" — namely, either by compelling them too much to labor or by withholding their wage. Now it is fitting that he who covets superfluous and unaccustomed things should also lose things that are due and accustomed; hence he adds, "instead of wheat" — which, namely, is sown for the sustenance of men — "let a thistle grow up for me" — which, namely, is not only useless but also prickly — "and instead of barley" — which, namely, is sown for the food of beasts of burden — "a thorn" — which, namely, also injures the beasts by pricking them.

To these things thus premised is added the epilogue, when it is said, "the words of Job are ended," because, namely, after this he proposed nothing further for the assertion of his case.