Literal Commentary on Job (Expositio super Iob ad litteram)

"Do you know the time when the wild goats bring forth?" The Lord had, in what preceded, called to mind that which pertains to the cognitive power, speaking of the wisdom of man and the intelligence of the cock; he had also called to mind the prey of lions and the food of ravens, which pertain to the nutritive power; but now he calls to mind certain things pertaining to the generative power, and begins to treat of the bringing forth of the wild goats and of the hinds, in which something hidden seems to be present. For wild goats are certain small-bodied animals which dwell in rocky places, and in which places also they bring forth; wherefore access to places of this kind is not easily open to men, on account of which he says, "Do you know the time when the wild goats bring forth among the rocks?" As if he were to say: this is unknown to men on account of the roughness of the places in which they bring forth. Hinds, however, as is said, choose hidden places in which to bring forth, where wolves are not accustomed to come; and therefore, to show the hiddenness of their bringing forth, he adds, "Have you observed the hinds when they were bringing forth?" This is said to the commendation of divine providence: for women, when they bring forth, need the service of midwives, but to animals whose bringing forth is hidden from men, God by his providence supplies the help that is necessary for them in bringing forth, inasmuch, namely, as he gives them a natural skill by which they know those things which are to be known in such matters, of which the first is that the space of time in which the offspring is perfected in the womb should be known; and as to this he says, "Have you numbered the months of their conception," that is, so as to indicate to them when they ought to prepare themselves for bringing forth? Whence he adds, "and known the time of their bringing forth," that is, so as to indicate to them when they ought to bring forth? For in these matters women in childbirth are accustomed to be instructed by others; but animals, which are indeed far removed from human company, know these things through a natural skill divinely implanted in them, and at a determined time prepare themselves for bringing forth in that manner by which the offspring can most easily be brought out; whence he adds, "they bend themselves to the offspring," namely to bring it forth, "and they bring forth," namely by themselves, nature instructing them; and yet the bringing forth is not pleasurable to them but painful, whence he adds, "and they send forth roarings," namely on account of the pain which they suffer in bringing forth. And just as mothers by natural skill prepare themselves for bringing forth, so also the young, by a natural skill divinely implanted in them, seek out for themselves the things necessary; whence he adds, "their young are weaned," which he says to mark a difference from human offspring, for a child just born cannot move itself so as to depart from its mother, which nevertheless happens in the aforesaid animals: for as soon as they are born they move, and their first movement is to seek food; whence he adds, "and they go forth to pasture." Yet at the beginning they need to be fed on the mother's milk, and so they are separated from the mother in such a way that they nevertheless return to her; but afterward, when they have become fully grown, they are altogether separated from their mothers; whence he also adds, "they go out and do not return to them," because, namely, they no longer need to be suckled by them.

These things having been premised which pertain to certain special properties of animals, namely pertaining to knowledge, food, and bringing forth, he calls to mind those things which pertain to the whole manner of their life. Concerning which, first it appears wonderful that certain animals, while they are domestic, cannot be sustained without man's care, yet there are found some belonging to that kind which are wild and are governed without the providence of men; and this appears most wonderful in the ass, which, when it is domestic, seems altogether given over to man's servitude, from which servitude, however, the wild asses, which are called onagers, appear to be free; whence he says, "Who has let the wild ass go free," that is, the wild ass, "free," namely from the servitude of men? This indeed is said according as that which is customary is apprehended by men as though it were natural; whence, because men are accustomed not to see asses except subjected to servitude, it seems to them that they are naturally slaves, and therefore, if they are ever found free, it seems to them that they have been let go from servitude; but the contrary is the case, for these animals were first not subjected to man in the manner in which they now are, but afterward, by human skill, they were tamed and given over to the services of men. Now the signs of the servitude of asses are the bonds by which they are tied, such as a halter or something of this kind; and as to this he adds, "and who has loosed his bonds?" For wild asses lack bonds of this kind. It also appears in domestic asses that they perish if they remain without dwellings prepared for them by men, but wild asses have, by divine providence, a dwelling prepared for them; whence he adds, "to whom I have given a house in the wilderness," namely to which man does not come, that is, some cave or cavern whatsoever, "and his dwellings," namely under the grasses or trees, "in the salt land," that is, in some uninhabited land on account of dryness and the scorching of the sun, from which its moisture is turned, as it were, into the savor of salt. And although a dwelling of this kind seems more uncultivated and more forbidding on account of its solitude, yet he prefers it to however noble a city; whence he adds, "he scorns the multitude of the city," namely in comparison to the dwelling of the desert. And he assigns a twofold reason, of which the first is that there laborious works are not exacted from him; whence he adds, "he does not hear the cry of the taskmaster," that is, of a master demanding of him the carrying of burdens or something of this kind. The other reason is that there he ranges more freely in seeking pasture; whence he adds, "he looks around at the mountains of his pasture," because, namely, a free approach to different places for seeking pastures lies open to him, and he takes even the pastures themselves according to his own liking; whence he adds, "and he seeks out every green thing": but to domestic asses the best pastures are not given, but sometimes the meaner ones, the better pastures being reserved for nobler animals.

Now just as the ass serves man for carrying burdens, in whose place among wild animals the onager is found, so also, among domestic animals, the ox serves man for plowing on account of its strength, to which he compares, among wild animals, the rhinoceros, that is, the unicorn, which is a four-footed animal, very strong and fierce, having one horn in the middle of its forehead; but this animal, on account of its fierceness, cannot easily be tamed as the ox is tamed; whence he adds, "Will the rhinoceros," that is, the unicorn, "be willing to serve you," that is, so as, once tamed, to obey you of its own accord? Now domesticated animals willingly take food from men; to exclude this he adds, "or will he stay at your crib," so as, namely, to be ready to eat what is offered to him by you? Now domesticated oxen are fed for this purpose, that they may be applied to the service of plowing; and to exclude this he adds, "Will you bind the rhinoceros," that is, the unicorn, "with your thong for plowing," as, namely, plowing is done with oxen? Men also use oxen for another service, namely, that, dragging a certain harrow, they may level the plowed earth by breaking up the clods; whence he adds, "or will he break the clods of the valleys," which, namely, are accustomed to be more diligently cultivated on account of their greater fruitfulness, "after you," that is, after you have plowed the earth? Or, "after you," that is, so that, with you going before, he may follow, breaking the clods? Certain strong animals are also set to guard the fields against thieves or against animals which might lay waste the crops, just as fields are guarded by certain fierce dogs; but this cannot be done by the unicorn, because it is not domesticated; whence he adds, "Will you have confidence in his great strength, and will you leave your labors to him," that is, the fruits of the fields, to be guarded? So then you cannot use this most powerful animal either as an ox for plowing, or as a dog for guarding. Likewise also you cannot use him as a strong farmer for procuring the fruits of the earth; whence he adds, "Will you believe him, that he will render you the seed, and gather your threshing floor?" As, namely, a hired laborer does, who sows the seed received from his master and renders it multiplied, gathering the crops into the threshing floor and afterward, after threshing, carrying it back to the master's barn.

These things, then, having been set forth, in which certain wild animals are distinguished from the domestic, he adds certain properties of certain animals in which they seem to differ from all other animals. And this appears especially in the ostrich, which is a bird approaching, as it were, to the kind of beasts; wherefore, although it has feathers after the manner of animals that fly high, it nevertheless cannot by them raise itself on high; whence he says, "The feather of the ostrich is like the feathers of the heron," that is, of the most noble falcon which is called the gerfalcon, "and of the hawk," which is a well-known bird, and both are birds of good flight. Now there is also another property of the ostrich, differing from other birds, namely that it does not brood over its eggs, but, digging in the sand, leaves them there and covers them with sand; whence he adds, "which leaves her eggs in the earth." She has, however, this natural skill, that she observes the warm season, namely when the stars begin to appear which are called the Pleiades, that is, in the month of July, and then she lays her eggs; and so, from the heat of the season and of the place — because, namely, she does not stay except in warm places — the eggs are given life, and from them the young are born; whence he adds, "will you perhaps warm them in the dust?" As if he were to say: no, but this is brought about by divine providence, through which even the eggs are kept unharmed in the dust. For the ostrich is by nature a forgetful animal, and applies no care to the preservation of the eggs; whence he adds, "she forgets that a foot," namely of a man passing along the way, "may tread them," namely the eggs, "or a beast of the field may crush them," whether by chance in passing through or on account of appetite for food. And just as she has no care for the preservation of the eggs, so she has no care for the nourishing of her young; whence he adds, "she is hardened toward her young, as though they were not hers," because, namely, she has no care for their nourishing, and so, as far as it lies in her, she loses the fruit of her generation; whence he adds, "she has labored in vain," namely in conceiving and in carrying what was conceived, seeing that she does not nourish her young. It also happens sometimes that other animals too desert their offspring on account of fear, but the ostrich does this "with no fear compelling her." She does this, however, not on account of fear, but on account of the lack of that natural skill which other animals have in this matter; whence he adds, "for God has deprived her," namely the female ostrich, "of wisdom," namely for the orderly nourishing and governing of her offspring, "nor has he given her understanding," by which, namely, she might have solicitude for her young: now by wisdom and understanding he names natural skill. And because he had said above that she has feathers like the feathers of the heron and the hawk, he consequently shows for what purpose feathers of this kind are of use to her, saying, "when the time shall be," that is, when some necessity of speed of movement is upon her, "she lifts up her wings on high," yet in such a way that by the wings her body cannot be raised upward, but by them she is helped to run swiftly; whence he adds, "she mocks the horse and his rider," because, namely, she runs more swiftly than a horse carrying a man, "and his rider," namely of the horse, because, namely, he would run more swiftly than a man if he went on his own feet.

Now just as the ostrich has certain properties different from many animals, in which she is deficient compared to others, so also the horse has certain properties pertaining to nobility by which he differs from other animals. First, however, he calls to mind the strength of the horse when he says, "Will you give the horse strength," namely not only of body, inasmuch as it is powerful to bear a burden, but also of spirit, inasmuch as it goes boldly into dangers? He calls to mind another property of his, namely that he is provoked to lust by external adornment: for it is said of horses that by the beauty of their manes they are stirred to mating, and when their manes are shorn their lust is extinguished; to signify this he adds, "or will you surround his neck with neighing?" For horses are accustomed to neigh on account of lust, according to that saying of Jeremiah 5:8, "They were as amorous horses and stallions, every one neighed after his neighbor's wife"; therefore neighing is placed around the horse's neck by God when manes are given to him by God, from the consideration of which he is provoked to lust. There is also another property of the horse, that he leaps vehemently, contrary to the custom of many four-footed animals; whence he adds, "will you make him leap up," namely by raising him on high, "like the locusts," which, namely, move by leaping? Another property of the horse is his boldness in wars, which he describes at greater length because it is noble and admirable; and first his boldness is shown when he still perceives war by scent from afar; whence it follows, "the glory of his nostrils is terror," that is, the war which is a terror to others is, when perceived by the horse's nostrils, a glory to the horse, that is, a kind of greatness of spirit; and a sign of this at once appears in him, of which it is added, "he paws the earth with his hoof," as it were preparing himself for fighting. Now from the fact that he perceives war he inwardly rejoices; whence he adds, "he exults," namely upon perceiving the opportunity of fighting, and this he shows by its effect when he adds, "he goes boldly to meet armed men." Nor, when actually in the battle, is he cast down by terror; whence he adds, "he scorns fear," and, what is more, he is not driven back even by the pain of wounds; whence he adds, "nor does he yield to the sword." Now many animals are accustomed to be terrified by mere noise, but this does not happen to the horse; whence he adds, "over him the quiver will sound," namely full of arrows, while it is shaken by the movement of the soldier sitting upon the horse; likewise also from the spear and shield of the soldier some sound proceeds; whence he adds, "the spear will vibrate," that is, the spear, while it is brandished, gives forth a sound; likewise the shield, while it is moved and struck against arms, makes a sound; whence he adds, "and the shield," namely sounds; and yet at this sound the horse is not stupefied; whence he adds, "burning," namely inwardly through boldness, "and fierce," namely with neighing, which fierceness he names, which is properly of lions, on account of the horse's boldness; and not only by voice does he show the inward fervor of his spirit, but also by outward act; whence he adds, "he swallows up the ground," that is, he seems to swallow it up by pawing it with his feet. And he is not only not stupefied by the sound of the quiver, the spear, and the shield, but not even by the sound of the trumpet which is used in wars; whence he adds, "nor does he reckon the trumpet's blare as sounding," so as, namely, to be stupefied on account of it; nay rather he is said to rejoice at the sound of the horn; whence he adds, "wherever he shall hear the trumpet he says, Aha!" That is, he sends forth a voice of exultation, for "aha" is the interjection of one exulting. And because these things which have been said pertain to the boldness of the horse, he subjoins concerning his keenness of perception, saying, "he smells the battle from afar," that is, while the enemies are still far off, he perceives by scent that war is imminent, and he seems, as it were, to sense the preparation for war, when, namely, the leaders animate the soldiers by their exhortations; and as to this he adds, "the exhortation of the captains," namely he perceives, "and the shouting," that is, the confused clamor and din, "of the army," namely of the army preparing itself for war.

These things having been premised concerning the animals that walk upon the earth, he passes to the animals that fly in the air, and first he calls to mind the natural skill of the hawk, which, at the time of the changing of its feathers, spreads out its wings toward the South wind, which is a warm wind, so that, the pores being opened, the old feathers may fall and new ones be born again; whence he says, "Does the hawk grow feathers by your wisdom," namely when its feathers are renewed, "spreading its wings toward the South," so as, namely, to change its feathers more easily? Last, however, he speaks of the eagle, which flies higher than the other birds; whence he says, "Will the eagle be raised up at your command," namely as at mine? For the eagle does this by natural instinct: but every natural course of things is a certain movement of the creature at the command of God, according to that saying of the Psalm, "fire, hail, snow, ice, the stormy wind, which fulfill his word." And just as the eagle has an upward flight, so also she dwells in high places, which pertains to the nobility of her nature; and therefore he says, "and she will set her nest on high," so that, namely, her young, as soon as born, may become accustomed to dwell in high places; and therefore he adds, "she abides on the rocks," as if rejoicing in the purity of the air because in rocky places there is not much dissolving of vapors; "and she dwells among the broken crags," to which, namely, access does not lie open to harmful beasts, "and on cliffs inaccessible to man," by which, namely, provision is made for her security. Now the eagle has very sharp sight, so that she can see from afar the food she needs; whence he adds, "from there," namely from the high places, "she beholds her food," namely not only what is near but even what is far off; whence he adds, "and her eyes look from afar." Now the eagle is also powerful in prey, as is the lion among four-footed animals, and to signify this he adds, "her young lick up blood," namely of the living animals which the eagle carries to the nest. The eagle, moreover, feeds not only on living animals, as falcons and hawks do, but also on the carcasses of dead animals; whence he adds, "and wherever the carcass shall be, she is at once present," by which he also signifies the swiftness of her flight.

Now all these things have been adduced to show the greatness of the divine wisdom and power, through which such wonderful effects are produced: whence it is given to be understood that Job, having heard so many wonders of the divine effects, kept silence in astonishment; but the Lord stirs him up to consider that man is not fit to dispute with God; whence it is added, "the Lord added," namely to the words already spoken, "and spoke to Job," while he, namely, kept silent: "shall he who contends with God," that is, who offers himself to dispute with him, "be quieted so easily," namely as though he were overcome, like you who keep silence? Certainly "he who argues with God," as though disputing concerning his judgments, "ought also to answer him": for it is just that whoever provokes another to dispute should himself also be ready to answer. And lest Job should seem, though convicted, to remain obstinate in his own opinion, he bursts forth into words of humility; whence it follows, "but Job, answering the Lord, said: what can I answer, I who have spoken lightly?" Here it is to be considered that Job, speaking before God and his own conscience, does not accuse himself of falsity of speech or of proud intention, since he had spoken out of purity of soul, but of levity of speech: because, namely, even if he had not spoken out of pride of spirit, his words nevertheless seemed to savor of arrogance, whence his friends had taken occasion of scandal; but one ought to avoid not only evils but also those things which have the appearance of evil, according to the Apostle, 1 Thessalonians 5:22, "abstain from every appearance of evil"; and therefore he adds, "I will put my hand upon my mouth," so as, namely, not to burst forth henceforth into similar words; and of the things which I have said I repent; whence he adds, "one thing I have spoken, which I would that I had not said," namely that I said that I wished to dispute with God, "and another," namely that I preferred my own justice while the matter of the divine judgments was being treated. But the third thing which Elihu had imputed to him, namely that he should say that God's judgment was unjust, he does not acknowledge, because this would pertain not to levity of speech but to blasphemy. Now he so repents of the things lightly said that he proposes amendment; whence he adds, "to which I will add no more," so as, namely, not to utter other light words. Now it is to be considered that, if the aforesaid speech of the Lord to Job was not uttered by an outward sound but was inwardly inspired, Job is found in this book to have spoken in three ways: first, indeed, as representing the affection of sensuality in his first complaint, when he said, "let the day perish"; second, expressing the deliberation of human reason while he disputed against his friends; third, according to divine inspiration, when he introduced words in the person of the Lord; and because human reason ought to be directed according to divine inspiration, after the words of the Lord he reproves the words which he had spoken according to human reason.