Commentary on Galatians (Super Epistolam B. Pauli ad Galatas Lectura)

Above, the Apostle showed that righteousness is not through the law; but here he leads them back from error to a state of rectitude. And first as to divine matters; second as to human matters, in chapter 6, where he says: and if a man be overtaken, etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth the admonition; second he assigns its reason, where he says: behold, I Paul, etc. And in the admonition he likewise sets down two things. Of these, one is an inducement to good; the second is a prohibition from evil. He induces to good when he says stand fast therefore, as if to say: since through Christ you have been freed from the servitude of the law, stand fast in firm faith, and remaining with a fixed foot in liberty. Thus, then, when he says stand fast, he induces to rectitude. For he who stands is upright. 1 Corinthians 10:12: he that thinketh he standeth, etc. He also induces to firmness. 1 Corinthians 15:58: be steadfast and immovable, etc. Ephesians, last chapter: stand having your loins girt about, etc. But he forbids and draws them back from evil when he adds and be not held again under the yoke of bondage, that is, do not subject yourselves to the law, which begets unto servitude. Concerning which yoke it is said in Acts 15:10: this is a burden which neither our fathers nor we, etc., from which you have been freed only through Christ. Isaiah 9:4: the rod of his shoulder, etc. He adds again, however, not because they had previously been under the law, but because, as Jerome says, after the Gospel to observe the legal precepts is so much a sin that it is like serving idolatry. Hence, because these people had been idolaters, if they subject themselves to the yoke of circumcision and the other legal observances, they revert, as it were, to the same things which they had previously served in idolatry. According to Augustine, however, as was said above, concerning the observances of the legal precepts a threefold time is distinguished, namely the time before the Passion, before grace was made public, and after grace was made public. After grace was made public, therefore, to observe the legal precepts is a mortal sin, even for the Jews themselves. But in the middle time, namely before grace was made public, even those who had been converted from the Jews could observe the legal precepts without sin, provided that they did not place their hope in them; but it was not lawful for those converted from the gentiles to observe them. Since, therefore, the Galatians were not from the Jews, and yet wished to observe the legal precepts and placed their hope in them, they were therefore reverting into the yoke of servitude. For an observance of this kind was to them like idolatry, insofar as they did not think rightly concerning Christ, believing that salvation could not be obtained from him without the legal precepts. Then, when he says behold I, etc., he expounds the two aforesaid points. And first the second, second the first, where he says but we in spirit, etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows what the yoke of servitude is, which they ought not to undergo; second he proves it, where he says you are made void, etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows that yoke to be exceedingly harmful; second, exceedingly burdensome, where he says but I testify, etc. The yoke of the law is indeed harmful, because it takes away the effect of the Lord's Passion. And therefore he says: be not held under the yoke of servitude, because behold I Paul — who, understand: with the voice of authority, say — and well — if you be circumcised, Christ shall profit you nothing, that is, the faith of Christ shall profit you nothing. But against this, it is said in Acts 16:3 that Paul circumcised Timothy; therefore he did something as a result of which Christ would profit him nothing; therefore he deceived him. I answer. It must be said, according to Jerome, that Paul did not circumcise Timothy as though he intended to observe the law, but he feigned to circumcise him, performing the act of circumcision. For, according to him, the apostles observed the legal precepts in a feigned manner, in order to avoid scandalizing the faithful who came from the Jews. They performed the acts of the legal precepts, however, not with the intention of observing the legal precepts, and thus they did not depart from the faith. Hence he did not deceive Timothy. According to Augustine, however, it must be said that the apostles observed the legal precepts in truth, and with the intention of observing them, because, according to the opinion of the apostles, it was lawful for the faithful from the Jews at that time, namely before grace was made public, to observe them. And therefore, because Timothy was from a Jewish mother, the Apostle circumcised him with the intention of observing the legal precepts. But because the Galatians placed their hope in the legal precepts after grace had been made public, as though without them grace would not suffice for salvation, and therefore wished to observe them, therefore the Apostle says to them if you be circumcised, etc. For it followed from this that they did not account Christ, in whose sign circumcision had been given. Genesis 17:11: that it may be a sign of the covenant between me and you, etc. Those, therefore, who were circumcised, believed that the sign still endured, and that the one signified had not yet come, and thus they fell away from Christ. Thus, then, it is plain that the burden of the law is harmful. It is also exceedingly burdensome, because it obligates to the impossible, and this is what he says but I testify, etc., as if to say: I say that if you be circumcised, Christ shall profit you nothing. But further, for I testify to every man, namely Jew and gentile, etc. For whoever professes himself in any religion makes himself a debtor of all the things which pertain to the observance of that religion. And as Augustine says: there was never any religion without some visible sign, to which those who live in that religion are obligated; just as in the Christian religion the visible sign is Baptism, to which all Christians are bound as regards worship. They are also obligated to all the things which pertain to the worship of the Christian religion. Now the sign of the Mosaic law was circumcision. Whoever, therefore, circumcised himself, was obligated to observe and fulfill all the legal precepts, and this is what he says that he is a debtor to do the whole law, James 2:10: whosoever shall offend in one point, is become guilty of all. Which, however, no one was able to observe, according to that saying of Acts 15:10: this is a burden which neither our fathers nor we have been able to bear, etc. But granted that someone were circumcised, then according to what has been said he obligates himself to observe the legal precepts; but this is a mortal sin; therefore he is bound to sin mortally, and thus he seems to be in a perplexed state. I answer. It must be said that, the same conscience enduring, he is bound to observe the legal precepts; for instance, if someone had the conscience that, unless he were circumcised, he would sin mortally, then, once circumcised, with that same conscience enduring, he would sin mortally if he did not observe the legal precepts: the reason for which is, that to have a conscience concerning some deed to be done is nothing other than to judge that one acts against God unless one does it. But to act against God is sin. Thus, then, I say that unless he did that to which his conscience induces him, he would sin mortally, not indeed from the kind of the work, but from the intention of the one acting. And likewise if he does it, he sins; because ignorance of this kind does not excuse, since it is ignorance of the law. Nor, however, is he perplexed simply speaking, but in a qualified sense, because he can lay aside his erroneous conscience. And in this way here the Apostle testifies to everyone who circumcises himself, that he is bound to observe the law. Consequently, when he says you are made void, etc., he proves what he has said, namely that they ought not to accept the observance of the law by reason of a harm now already present, which is twofold. One is the loss of Christ; the second is the loss of the grace of Christ. The first is the cause of the second, where he says whosoever are justified in the law, etc. He says, therefore, you are made void, etc., as if to say: truly Christ shall profit you nothing, because you are made void from Christ, that is, from the indwelling of Christ. The second harm is the loss of grace. Therefore he says you are fallen from grace, you who, namely, were previously full of the grace of Christ, because of his fullness we have all received. John 1:16: of the fullness of Christ we have all received, etc. And Ecclesiasticus 21:17: the heart of a fool is like a broken vessel, and it shall hold no wisdom. You, I say, who are justified in the law, that is, believe yourselves to be justified, are fallen from grace, namely, the grace to be had of future beatitude, or even from that already possessed. Apocalypse 2:5: be mindful from whence thou art fallen, and do penance.

The Apostle has explained according to the teaching, namely, that the yoke of the servitude of the law should not be undergone; here, however, he returns to the first point, showing that they ought to stand firm. And first he sets forth an example of standing; second he removes an impediment to standing, at the words you were running well, etc.; third he assigns the cause of standing, at the words but we, in the Spirit, by faith, etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth the example of standing; second he assigns its cause, at the words for in Christ Jesus, etc.

He says therefore: those who wish to be justified in the law, Christ profits them nothing, because they fall away from grace. But we — namely, the apostles — stand by hope, because, that is, we await the hope of justice, that is, justice and hope, namely, eternal blessedness. 1 Peter 1:3: he has regenerated us unto a living hope, etc. Or, the hope of justice, that is, Christ, through whom there is for us the hope of justice, because through him we are justified. Philippians 3:20: we await a savior, etc. 1 Corinthians 1:30: who is made unto us wisdom, and justice, and sanctification, and redemption, etc. Or the hope of justice, that is, the hope which is concerning justice, namely, that they be justified not by the law, but by faith. Romans 3:28: we reckon that man is justified by faith without the works of the law. Or the hope of justice, that is, the thing hoped for, toward which justice tends, namely, eternal life. 2 Timothy, last chapter: for the rest, there is laid up for me a crown of justice, etc.

And this from faith, because the justice of God is through the faith of Jesus Christ, as is said in Romans 3:22. And this faith indeed is not from man, but from the Holy Spirit who inspires it. Romans 8:15: you have received the spirit of adoption of sons, whereby we cry: Abba, Father, etc. Therefore, just as faith is from the Spirit, so from faith is hope, from hope justice, through which we arrive at eternal life.

But this hope does not come from circumcision, nor from being a Gentile, because these things contribute nothing to it. And therefore he says for in Christ Jesus, that is, in those who are in the faith of Christ, neither circumcision nor uncircumcision, etc., that is, they are matters of indifference. But faith — not unformed faith, but that which works through love — James 2:26: faith without works is dead, etc. For faith is a knowledge of the word of God, Ephesians 3:17: that Christ may dwell through faith, etc. And this word is neither perfectly possessed nor perfectly known unless there is also possessed the love which it hopes for.

Here there are two doubts concerning the Gloss. The first is, that it says that uncircumcision and circumcision are matters of indifference, whereas above it said if you are circumcised, Christ will profit you nothing. But it must be said that from the genus of the work they are matters of indifference, namely for those who do not place their hope in them; but from the intention of the one acting they are not matters of indifference. For to those who place their hope in them, they are deadly.

The second doubt concerns this, that it says that those who do not believe are worse than the demons, since the demons believe and tremble. I respond. It must be said that they are indeed worse as regards the species of the deed, but not as regards the affection. For it displeases the demons that they believe; nor is there so great a wickedness of will in the man who does not believe as there is in the demon who hates what he believes.

Consequently, when he says you were running well, etc., he deals with the impediment to standing. And first he sets down the impediment; second he teaches its removal, at the words let no one persuade you, etc. The impediment to their standing was great and harmful; for a thing is harmful in proportion as it deprives one of a greater good. When, therefore, someone is deprived of many spiritual goods, it is a sign that he has had a great impediment. And therefore, that the Apostle might show that they had a great impediment, he reminds them of the spiritual goods which they had lost, when he says you were running well, etc., namely, through the works of faith formed by charity, which spurs one on to run. Psalm 118:32: I have run the way of your commandments, when you enlarged my heart. And this indeed was formerly in you, but while you were thus running, you were hindered, and therefore he adds: who has bewitched you? Concerning which it was spoken above in chapter 3:1; and therefore I pass over it for the present.

Who, then, has bewitched you, that is, hindered you from obeying the truth, namely, the evangelical truth? And this he says fittingly; for to obey is a matter of the will applying itself to the consent of one who commands. And therefore faith is a knowledge of the will and of the intellect. It is necessary, therefore, that the will obey faith; and this consists in willing to believe that the grace of the faith of Christ suffices for salvation without the observances of the law.

He excludes the impediment, however, when he says let no one, etc., and this from a threefold source. First on the part of themselves; second on the part of God, at the words I am confident, etc.; third on the part of the Apostle, at the words but I, brethren, etc.

On the part of themselves, when he says let no one, etc. Here he first shows what is required on their part, that they might avoid this harm, namely, that they no longer consent to any false apostle. 1 Thessalonians 5:5: let us not be of the night, nor of darkness, etc. Ephesians 5:11: have no fellowship with the unfruitful works of darkness, etc., and 2 Timothy 2:17: and their speech spreads like a cancer, etc. From this it is given to understand that they were not yet corrupted, but were being solicited concerning this.

Second, he assigns the reason for this when he says for this persuasion, etc. And this is twofold. The first is, that when a man gives himself to someone, he ought to do nothing except what he has judged useful to himself. But you have been handed over to Christ; therefore you ought not to hear or consent except to those things which are from him; therefore this persuasion, by which they wish to send you under the yoke of the law, since it is not from him, namely, from God who called you unto life, but from the devil, insofar, namely, as he is deficient, and therefore you should not consent to them. Or not from him, that is, against him.

The second reason is, because it could be said that it is not a great matter if a few consent, since from this there is no danger; and therefore he says that they ought not to consent to them, nor should their snares be despised, but they ought to resist at the beginnings, because a little leaven, etc., that is, those few who are persuading you. Or: this persuasion, small at the beginning, corrupts the whole lump, that is, the congregation of the faithful. Leviticus 2:11: neither shall any leaven or honey be burned in the sacrifice of the Lord.

Consequently, when he says I am confident in you, etc., he removes the impediment on the part of God, who supplies help toward this. And he sets down a twofold help: one with respect to those who seduce; the other with respect to those who trouble, at the words but he who troubles you, etc.

He says therefore I am confident, etc., as if to say: I have said that you should not consent to a false apostle, and I am confident in you. 2 Corinthians 7:16: I rejoice that in all things I have confidence in you. Hebrews 6:9: but we are confident of you, beloved, better things, and things nearer to salvation. I am confident, I say, in this, namely, that you will taste nothing else than what I have taught you. Above, 1:8: although we, or an angel from heaven, should preach a gospel to you besides that which we have preached, let him be anathema. Philippians 2:2: fulfill my joy, that you may taste the same thing, etc. And this from divine help. And therefore he says in the Lord, namely, God working. 2 Corinthians 3:4: such confidence we have through Christ toward God, etc. Because the Lord will give you to taste according to the sobriety of Catholic truth. Psalm 91: it is good to trust in the Lord, etc.

But as to those who trouble, he says but he who troubles, etc., that is, who removes you from the due order, so that, namely, you are turned from spiritual things to bodily things, when the contrary ought to be the case. 1 Corinthians 15:46: not first that which is spiritual, but that which is animal, then that which, etc. And since such an order is perverse, as is said above, 3:3: are you so foolish, that whereas you began in the Spirit, etc., therefore he shall bear the judgment, that is, he shall undergo condemnation. For just as one who leads another to good is rewarded, Daniel 12:3: they who instruct many unto justice, shall shine as stars for all eternity, etc., so one who leads another to evil is condemned. Joshua 7:25: because you have troubled us, may the Lord trouble you this day. Deuteronomy 27:18: cursed be he who makes the blind to wander out of the way.

And this, whosoever he be, that is, of whatever authority he be, he shall not be spared. But Porphyry and Julian reproach Paul in this matter for presumption, saying that he says this tearing at Peter — since above he wrote that he had resisted him to his face — so that the meaning would be: whosoever he be, that is, even if it were Peter, he would be punished. But, as Augustine says, it is not to be believed that Paul would speak with a curse concerning the prince of the Church, since it is written in Exodus 22:28: you shall not speak ill of the prince of your people. Nor even that Peter had so offended that he was worthy of condemnation. The Apostle, therefore, speaks of a certain other man who, coming from Judea, said that he had been a disciple of the great apostles, and under that authority, together with other false preachers, was corrupting the Galatians. Above, 2:4: because of false brethren unawares brought in, etc.

Consequently, when he says but I, brethren, etc., he removes the impediment on his own part. And first he sets down his own excuse; second the rebuke of those who were defaming him, at the words would that they were cut off, etc. He excludes, however, the falsehood that was imputed to him. And first something pertaining to himself alone; second something pertaining to all, at the words therefore the scandal of the cross is made void, etc.

It must be known concerning the first that, the false apostles excusing the Galatians for the fact that they did not keep the legal observances — because they had been so taught by the Apostle — they said that the Apostle had deceived them, and that he had persuaded them to this unto their own servitude; and they confirmed this, saying that Paul had preached in Judea, and had taught that the legal observances ought to be kept. And therefore the Apostle excuses himself concerning this, saying but I, brethren, if I still preach circumcision, as the false apostles impute to me, why do I still suffer persecution? Namely, from the Jews. 1 Corinthians 4:12: we suffer persecution, etc. For the Jews persecuted Paul especially on this account, that he preached that the legal observances ought not to be kept. Acts 21:21, James says to Paul: they have heard of you that you teach a departure from Moses, those of the Jews who are among the Gentiles, saying that they ought not to circumcise their sons, etc. It is plain, therefore, that what they impute to me is not true, otherwise I would not still be suffering persecutions.

That which they impute to me is also false through that which is commonly held among others, because if I preach circumcision, the scandal of the cross is made void. For not only I, but also all the apostles, preach Christ crucified, unto the Jews indeed a scandal, etc., as is said in 1 Corinthians 1:23. And they are scandalized most of all at this, that we preach that through the cross of Christ the legal observances are made void. If, therefore, I preach circumcision, the scandal is made void, that is, there will no longer be a scandal among the Jews concerning the cross. For they would patiently endure — indeed, they would gladly wish — that we should preach that the cross and the legal observances ought to be kept together. Or, according to Augustine, the scandal of the cross is made void, that is, the cross, which is the scandal, is made void, as if he were to say: the cross has lost its effect and its power. Above, 2:21: for if justice were by the law, then Christ died in vain. The Apostle, moreover, says specifically the scandal is made void, etc., to give one to understand that it was on this account that the Jews killed Christ, because he did not keep the legal observances, and taught that they were not to be kept. John 9:16: this man is not from God, because he does not keep the sabbath.

Consequently he rebukes the false apostles who had defamed him, saying would that they were cut off, etc., as if to say: they themselves trouble you in this, that they wish you to be circumcised; but would that they were not only circumcised, but wholly castrated. But against this, Romans 12:14: bless, and do not curse, etc. To this there is a twofold response. The first is, that the Apostle did not curse them, but rather blessed them, because he wished for them that they be spiritually castrated, that they might keep spiritual chastity, by cutting away the ceremonial observances, according to that saying of Matthew 19:12: there are certain eunuchs, who have castrated themselves for the kingdom of heaven. Second, that he wishes for them the sterility of offspring which eunuchs have, namely, that they not beget. Whence he says would that they were even cut off, etc., that is, that they lose the power of begetting in you, and in others. And this deservedly, because they beget sons unto error, and reduce them into the servitude of the law. Hosea 9:14: give them a womb without children, and dry breasts.

Having set forth the example of standing firm and having removed its impediment, here he indicates the manner of it. And first he sets down the manner of standing; second he explains it, where he says for the whole law, etc. Concerning the first he does three things. First he sets down the condition of the state; second he removes the abuse of standing; third he indicates the manner of standing.

The condition of standing is indeed liberty. For every condition of a state pertains either to servitude or to liberty; but the state of the faith of Christ, to which the Apostle leads, pertains to liberty and is liberty itself. And therefore he says for you, etc., as if to say: they rightly disturb you, because they lead you away from the better to the worse, since you were called - namely by God - unto the liberty of grace. Romans 8:15: you have not received the spirit of servitude again in fear, but you have received the spirit of adoption of sons, etc. Above, 4:31: we are not children of the handmaid, but of the free woman, etc. You, I say, who are free through Christ, they wish to lead into servitude.

Now the abuse of the state is if it should slip into something worse, and the liberty of the spirit be perverted into the servitude of the flesh. But the Galatians were already free from the law; yet lest they believe it lawful for them to commit the sins which the law forbade, therefore the Apostle adds the abuse of liberty, saying only not, etc., as if to say: you are free, yet in such a way that you should not abuse your liberty, thinking that you may sin with impunity. 1 Corinthians 8:9: see lest perhaps this license of yours become a stumbling block to the weak.

Now the manner of standing is through charity, whence he says but through the charity of the spirit, etc. Now the whole state consists in charity, without which man is nothing, 1 Corinthians 13:1f. And according to the diverse degrees of charity, diverse states are distinguished. Thus therefore the state of grace is not through the affection of the flesh, but through the charity of the spirit, that is, which proceeds from the Holy Spirit, through whom we ought to be subject to one another and to serve. Below, 6:2: bear one another's burdens, etc. Romans 12:10: in honor preferring one another, etc.

But since above he says that they are called unto liberty, what is it that now he says serve one another? To which it must be said that this is what charity requires, that we serve one another, and yet it is free. It must be known, however, that, as the Philosopher says, he is free who is the cause of himself, but the slave is for the sake of another, whether as the one moving or as the end: because the slave is not moved to his work by himself, but by his master, and for the sake of the advantage of his master. Charity therefore, as regards the moving cause, has liberty, because it works from itself. 2 Corinthians 5:14: the charity of Christ urges us - spontaneously, namely, to work. But it is a slave, when, having set aside its own advantages, it accommodates itself to the advantages of its neighbors.

Consequently, when he says the whole law, etc., he explains what he says, and first concerning love, second concerning liberty not to be given as an occasion to the flesh, where he says walk in the spirit, etc. Concerning the first, he exhorts to the pursuit of charity: first on account of the advantage which we obtain in its fulfillment; second on account of the harm which we incur by the neglect of charity, where he says but if one another, etc.

Now the advantage which we obtain from the fulfillment of charity is greatest, because in it we fulfill the whole law. And therefore he says for all, etc., as if to say: therefore charity is to be had, because the whole law is fulfilled in one word, namely in the one precept of charity. Romans 13:8: he who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law. And in the same chapter it is said: the fullness of the law is love. And therefore he says, 1 Timothy 1:5: the end of the precept is charity.

But on the contrary, because it is said in Matthew 12: on these two commandments - namely of the love of God and of neighbor - the whole law depends, and the prophets; therefore it is not fulfilled in one precept only.

I respond. It must be said that in the love of God is included the love of neighbor. 1 John 4:21: this commandment we have from God, that he who loves God, love also his brother. And conversely we love our neighbor on account of God: therefore the whole law is fulfilled in the one precept of charity. For the precepts of the law are reduced to that precept. For all the precepts are either moral, or ceremonial, or judicial. The moral precepts indeed are the precepts of the Decalogue, of which three pertain to the love of God, the other seven to the love of neighbor. The judicial precepts, however, are such as that whoever steals something should restore fourfold, and things similar to these, which likewise pertain to the love of neighbor. The ceremonial precepts, however, are sacrifices and things of this kind, which are reduced to the love of God. And thus it is clear that all things are fulfilled in the one precept of charity, you shall love your neighbor as yourself: and it is written in Leviticus 19:18.

But he says as yourself, not as much as yourself, because man, according to the order of charity, ought to love himself more than another. Now it is explained in three ways.

In one way, so that it be referred to the truth of love. For to love is to will good to someone. And therefore we are said to love someone to whom we will good, and we also love that good which we will for him; but in different ways, because when I will good for myself, I love myself simply on account of myself, but that good which I will for myself, I love not for its own sake, but on account of myself. Then, therefore, I love my neighbor as myself, that is, in the same way as myself, when I will good for him for his own sake, not because he is useful or delightful to me.

In the second way, so that it be referred to the justice of love. For each thing is inclined to will for itself that which is most excellent in it; but the most excellent thing in man is intellect and reason; he therefore loves himself, who wills for himself the good of intellect and reason. Then, therefore, you love your neighbor as yourself, when you will for him the good of intellect and reason.

In the third way, so that it be referred to order, namely that just as you love yourself on account of God, so also you should love your neighbor on account of Him, namely that he may arrive at God.

Consequently, when he says but if one another, etc., he leads to the pursuit of charity from the harm which we incur if we neglect it. Here he speaks to the Galatians as still, as it were, spiritual, abstaining from the mention of greater vices, and he makes mention of those which seem lesser, namely of the vices of the tongue.

And therefore he says but if one another, etc., as if to say: in love the whole law is fulfilled; but if you bite one another, that is, by detracting from your neighbor you take away his reputation in part - for he who bites does not take the whole, but a part. And devour, that is, you take away his whole reputation and utterly confound him by detracting totally. For he who devours, absorbs the whole. James 4:11: do not detract from one another, my brothers, etc.

If thus, I say, you neglect charity, see the harm which threatens you, namely that you be consumed by one another. Philippians 3:2: beware of the dogs, beware of the evil workers, etc. Isaiah 49:4: and in vain have I consumed my strength, etc. For as Augustine says: by the vice of contention and envy, pernicious quarrels are nourished among men, by which society and life are consumed.

After the Apostle has shown in what the state of spiritual life consists — namely, that it consists in charity — he consequently here deals with the cause of that state, namely the Holy Spirit, whom he says must be followed. Here he sets down a threefold benefit of the Holy Spirit. The first of these is liberation from the servitude of the flesh; the second is liberation from the servitude of the law; and the third is the conferring of life, or security from the damnation of death. The second is given where he says, "But if you are led," etc. The third, where he says, "If we live by the spirit," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets down the first benefit of the Spirit; second he shows the necessity of this benefit, where he says, "For the flesh," etc.

He says therefore: I say that you ought through charity to serve one another by the Spirit, because nothing profits without charity. But I say this: "in Christ," that is, through faith in Christ, "walk by the spirit," that is, by mind and reason. For sometimes our mind is called "spirit," according to that word of Ephesians 4: "be renewed in the spirit of your mind"; and 1 Corinthians 4: "I will sing with the spirit, I will sing also with the mind." Or, "walk by the spirit," that is, make progress by the Holy Spirit through good working. For the Holy Spirit moves and instigates hearts to work well. Romans 8:14: "who are led by the Spirit of God," etc. One must walk, therefore, by the spirit, that is, by the mind, so that reason or the mind itself may agree with the law of God, as is said in Romans 7:16. For the human spirit is of itself vain, and unless it is ruled from elsewhere, it wavers this way and that, as is said in Sirach 34:6: "and as the heart of one in labor conceives fantasies unless a visitation has been sent from the Most High," etc. Whence of certain men it is said in Ephesians 4:17: "they walk in the vanity of their sense," etc. Human reason, therefore, cannot stand perfectly, except insofar as it is made right by the divine Spirit. And therefore the Apostle says, "walk by the spirit," that is, through the Holy Spirit ruling and leading, whom we ought to follow as one showing the way. For the knowledge of the supernatural end is not ours except from the Holy Spirit. 1 Corinthians 2:9: "eye has not seen, nor ear heard, nor has it entered into the heart of man," etc., and it continues: "but to us God has revealed it through his Spirit." Likewise as one inclining us. For the Holy Spirit instigates, and inclines the affection to willing well. Romans 8:14: "who are led by the Spirit of God," etc. Psalm 142:10: "your good spirit shall lead me into the right land." Now one must walk by the spirit for this reason: because it frees from the corruption of the flesh. Whence it follows, "and you shall not fulfill the desires of the flesh," that is, the delights of the flesh, which the flesh suggests. This the Apostle desired, saying in Romans 7:24: "unhappy man that I am, who shall deliver me from the body of this death? The grace of God," etc. And afterward he concludes in the eighth chapter: "there is therefore now no condemnation to those who are in Christ Jesus, who walk not according to the flesh." The reason for this he subjoins in the same place, saying: "for the law of the spirit of life in Christ Jesus has freed me from the law," etc. And this is the special desire of the saints, that they not fulfill the desires to which the flesh instigates — yet in such a way that under this are not included the desires that pertain to the necessity of the flesh, but those that pertain to superfluity.

Consequently, when he says, "for the flesh lusts," etc., he sets down the necessity of this benefit, which arises from the mutual assault of flesh and spirit. And first he sets down the assault itself; second he manifests it through a clear sign, where he says, "for these are contrary to one another," etc. He says therefore: it is necessary that through the spirit you overcome the desires of the flesh. For "the flesh lusts against the spirit." But here there seems to be a difficulty, since, since to lust is an act of the soul alone, it does not seem to belong to the flesh. To this it must be said, according to Augustine, that the flesh is said to lust insofar as the soul, by means of the flesh itself, lusts — just as the eye is said to see, though it is rather the soul that sees through the eye. Thus, then, the soul lusts through the flesh when it seeks after those things which are delightful according to the flesh. But the soul lusts of itself when it is delighted in those things which are according to the spirit, such as the works of the virtues and the contemplation of divine things and the meditation of wisdom. Wisdom 6:21: "the desire of wisdom, therefore, leads to an everlasting kingdom," etc.

But if the flesh lusts through the spirit, how does it lust against it? In this, namely, that the concupiscence of the flesh impedes the concupiscence of the spirit. For since the delightful things of the flesh are goods that are below us, while the delightful things of the spirit are goods that are above us, it happens that when the soul is occupied about the lower things, which are of the flesh, it is drawn back from the higher things, which are of the spirit.

But there seems to be a difficulty also about what he says, namely, that "the spirit lusts against the flesh." For if we here take "spirit" for the Holy Spirit, and the concupiscence of the Holy Spirit is against evils, it seems to follow that the flesh, against which the spirit lusts, is evil, and thus the error of the Manichean follows. I respond. It must be said that the spirit does not lust against the nature of the flesh, but against its desires, namely those which are for superfluity. Whence also it was said above: "the desires of the flesh," namely the superfluous ones, "you shall not fulfill." For in necessary things the spirit does not contradict the flesh, since, as is said in Ephesians 5:29, "no man ever hated his own flesh."

Consequently, when he says, "for these," etc., he sets down the sign of the mutual conflict, as if he were saying: it is clear by experience that they fight against one another and are contrary, to such an extent that "not whatsoever things you will" — namely, good or evil — "you do," that is, you are permitted to do. Romans 7:19: "for the good which I will, I do not, but," etc.

Nevertheless free choice is not thereby taken away. For since free choice consists in this, that it has election, freedom of choice is found in those things which fall under election. But not all the things that are in us are simply subject to our choice, but only in a certain respect. For in a particular instance I can avoid this or that movement of concupiscence or of anger, but in general we cannot avoid all movements of anger or concupiscence, and this on account of the corruption of the tinder introduced from the first sin.

But it should be noted that there are four kinds of men with respect to concupiscences, of whom none does whatsoever he wills. For the intemperate, who out of set purpose follow the carnal passions, according to that word of Proverbs 2:14, "who rejoice when they have done evil," do indeed do what they will, insofar as they follow those very passions; but insofar as their own reason murmurs against it and it displeases them, they do what they do not will. The incontinent, however, who have the purpose of abstaining, and yet are overcome by the passions, do indeed do what they do not will, insofar as they follow those very passions against their own purpose; and thus the intemperate do more of what they will. The continent, however, who would wish altogether not to lust, do what they will while they do not lust; but because they cannot altogether not lust, they do what they do not will. The temperate, on the other hand, do indeed what they will, insofar as, the flesh being tamed, they do not lust; but because it cannot be tamed entirely so that it does not in some measure resist the spirit — just as neither can malice grow so great that reason does not murmur against it — therefore, when at some time they do lust, they do what they do not will, yet more of what they will.

After the Apostle has shown that through the spirit we are freed from the desires of the flesh, here he consequently shows that through it we are freed from the servitude of the law. And first he sets forth the benefit of the spirit; second, he makes it manifest through its effect, where he says, "the works of the flesh are manifest," etc. He says therefore: I say that if you walk by the spirit, not only will you not accomplish the desires of the flesh, but what is more, if you are led by the spirit (which happens when you do what the spirit suggests, as a director and governor, and not what your own sense and affection prompts you to), you are not under the law. Psalm 142:10: "Your good spirit shall lead me into the right land" — not indeed as one who compels, but as one who governs. From these words Jerome wishes to conclude that after the coming of Christ no one who has the Holy Spirit is bound to observe the law. But it must be known that this saying, "if you are led by the spirit, you are no longer under the law," can be referred to the precepts of the law, whether ceremonial or moral. If indeed it is referred to the ceremonial precepts, it must be known that it is one thing to observe the law, another to be under the law. To observe the law is to do the works of the law without placing one's hope in them; but to be under the law is to place one's hope in the works of the law. Now in the primitive Church there were some just persons who observed the law but were not under the law, insofar as they observed the works of the law but were not under the law, as if placing their hope in them. Thus also Christ was under the law: above, chapter 4: "made under the law," etc. And thus the opinion of Jerome is excluded. If, however, it is referred to the moral precepts, then being under the law can be understood in two ways: either as to obligation — and thus all the faithful are under the law, because it was given to all; whence it is said in Matthew 5:17: "I have not come to abolish the law," etc.; or as to compulsion — and thus the just are not under the law, because the movement and instinct of the Holy Spirit, which is in them, is their own proper instinct; for charity inclines to that same thing which the law commands. Therefore, because the just have the law within them, they do spontaneously what the law commands, not compelled by it. But those who have the will to do evil are nevertheless held back by shame or by fear of the law — these are compelled. And thus the just are under the law only as obliging, not as compelling; under it as compelling are only the unjust. 2 Corinthians 3:17: "Where the spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty." 1 Timothy 1:9: "The law is not laid down for the just man" — namely, as compelling.

Consequently, when he says, "Now the works of the flesh are manifest," etc., he proves what he has said through its effect. And first he sets down the works of the flesh, which are contrary to the Holy Spirit; second, he shows how the works of the spirit are not forbidden by the law, where he says, "against such there is," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets down the works of the flesh, which are forbidden by the law; second he sets down the works of the spirit, which are not forbidden by it, where he says, "but the fruit," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth the works of the flesh; second he adds the harm that follows from them, where he says, "which I foretell," etc.

Now there is a difficulty concerning the first point. First, indeed, concerning the fact that the Apostle here sets down certain things which do not pertain to the flesh, and yet he calls them works of the flesh — such as the service of idols, sects, rivalries, and the like. I respond. It must be said, according to Augustine, Book 14 of the City of God, chapter 2, that whoever lives according to himself lives according to the flesh. Hence "flesh" here is taken for the whole man. Whatever, therefore, arises from disordered love of self is called a work of the flesh. Or it must be said that a sin can be called carnal in two ways: namely, as to its consummation — and thus only those things are called carnal which are consummated in the delight of the flesh, namely lust and gluttony; and as to its root — and thus all sins are called carnal, insofar as the soul is weighed down by the corruption of the flesh, as is said in Wisdom 9:15, from which the understanding, weakened, can more easily be deceived, and is impeded from its perfect operation. Whence from this vices also follow, namely heresies, sects, and other things of this kind. And in this way it is said that the tinder of sin is the principle of all sins.

Second, there is a difficulty, because since the Apostle says, "those who do such things shall not obtain the kingdom of God," and no one is excluded from the kingdom of God except for mortal sin, it follows therefore that all the things he enumerates are mortal sins. The contrary of this seems to be the case, because among these he enumerates many things which are not mortal sins, such as contention, rivalry, and the like. I respond. It must be said that all these enumerated things are in some way mortal; but some indeed according to their genus, such as homicide, fornication, the service of idols, and the like; but some according to their consummation, such as anger, whose consummation is in the harm of one's neighbor — whence if consent is given to the harm itself, it is a mortal sin. And likewise eating is ordered to the delight of food, but if someone places his end in delights of this kind, he sins mortally; and therefore he does not say "eatings" but "carousings"; and the same is to be understood concerning other similar things.

Third, there is a difficulty concerning their order and enumeration. Concerning this it must be said that, since the Apostle in different places enumerates different vices and in different ways, he does not intend to enumerate all vices in order and according to art, but only those in which those to whom he writes abound and in which they exceed. And therefore in them one should not look for completeness, but the cause of the diversity.

Having established these things, therefore, it must be known that the Apostle enumerates certain vices of the flesh which occur concerning things that are not necessary for life; and certain others concerning things that are necessary for life. Concerning the first he sets down certain vices which are of a man toward himself, certain ones against God, certain ones against his neighbor.

Against himself there are four, which he therefore sets down first because they manifestly proceed from the flesh, of which two pertain to the carnal act of lust: namely, fornication, which occurs, namely, when an unmarried man approaches an unmarried woman, or as to the natural use of lust. The other is uncleanness, as to use against nature. Ephesians 5:5: "every fornicator or unclean person," etc. 2 Corinthians 12:21: "who have not done penance for the uncleanness and fornication and impurity," etc. The other two are ordered to the acts themselves. One, namely, exterior, such as touch, looks, kisses, and the like; and as to this he says, "impurity," Ephesians 4:19: "who despairing, have given themselves up to impurity," etc. The other interior, namely in unclean thoughts; and as to this he says, "luxury," 1 Timothy 5:11: "for when they have grown wanton against Christ, they will marry," etc.

Against God he sets down two, of which one is that by which divine worship is impeded by the enemies of God; and as to this he says, "the service of idols," 1 Corinthians 10:7: "neither become idolaters," etc. Wisdom 14:27: "for the worship of unspeakable idols is the cause and beginning and end of every evil." The other is that by which a pact is entered into with demons; and as to this he says, "sorceries," which are done through magic arts, and are called sorceries from poison, because they are done to the harm of men. 1 Corinthians 10:20: "I would not have you become partakers with demons." Apocalypse, last chapter: "outside are dogs, and sorcerers," etc.

Against his neighbor, however, he sets down nine, of which the first is enmities, and the last homicide, because from the one there is an arrival at the other. The first, therefore, is enmity in the heart, which is hatred toward one's neighbor. Matthew 10:36: "a man's enemies are those of his own household." And therefore he says, "enmities." From this, however, arises dissension in words. And therefore he says, "contentions," which is an assault upon truth accompanied by confidence of outcry. Proverbs 20:3: "it is an honor for a man to separate himself from contentions." The second is rivalry, which consists in this, that one strives to obtain the same thing as another. Whence he says, "rivalries," which arise from contention. The third is when one is impeded by another as they both tend toward the same thing, and from this he becomes angry against him, and therefore he says, "wraths," James 1:20: "for the wrath of a man," etc. Ephesians 4:26: "let not the sun go down upon your anger." The fourth is when from anger of soul one arrives at blows; and as to this he says, "quarrels." Proverbs 4: "hatred stirs up quarrels." The fifth from these, namely "dissensions" — and if indeed they are in human matters, they are called dissensions, namely when partisan divisions occur in the Church. Romans 16:17: "mark those who cause dissensions and offenses contrary to the doctrine which you have learned, and avoid them." If in divine matters, they are then called "sects," that is, heresies. 2 Peter 2:1: "they will bring in sects of perdition," etc. And, in the same place: "they do not fear to bring in sects, blaspheming." From these, moreover, follows "envy," when those whom they rival prosper. Job 5:2: "envy slays the little one," etc. From these, moreover, follow homicides of the heart and of the deed. 1 John 4: "he who hates his brother is a murderer."

As to the vices, however, which pertain to the ordering of things necessary for life, he sets down two: one as to drink; whence he says, "drunkenness," namely habitual, Luke 21:34: "take heed lest your hearts be weighed down with surfeiting and drunkenness," etc. The other as to food, and as to this he says, "carousings," Romans 13:13: "not in carousings and drunkenness."

Having set forth the works of the flesh, here the Apostle consequently sets forth the works of the Spirit. And first he sets them forth; second he shows how the law stands in relation to the works of the Spirit and to the works of the flesh, at "against such there is no law," etc. Concerning the first, he enumerates the spiritual goods which he names "fruits."

From this a question arises, because that is called fruit which we enjoy, but we ought not to enjoy our own acts, but God alone; therefore acts of this kind which the Apostle enumerates here ought not to be called fruits. Likewise, the Gloss says that works of the Spirit of this kind are to be desired for their own sake; but what is desired for its own sake is not referred to something else; therefore the virtues and their works are not to be referred to beatitude.

I respond. It must be said that "fruit" is spoken of in two ways: namely as acquired, for instance from labor or study — Wisdom 3:15: "of good labors the fruit is glorious"; and as produced, just as fruit is produced from a tree — Matthew 7:18: "a good tree cannot bear evil fruits." Now the works of the Spirit are called fruits not as obtained or acquired, but as produced; but the fruit that is obtained has the character of an ultimate end, whereas the fruit that is produced does not. Nevertheless, fruit taken in this sense implies two things: namely, that it be the ultimate thing of the one producing it, just as the ultimate thing produced by a tree is its fruit, and that it be sweet or delightful. Song of Songs 2:3: "his fruit was sweet to my throat." Thus, then, the works of the virtues and of the Spirit are something ultimate in us. For the Holy Spirit is in us through grace, through which we acquire the habit of the virtues, and from this we are made capable of operating according to virtue. They are also delightful, and they are also fruitful. Romans 6:22: "you have your fruit unto sanctification," that is, in sanctified works, and therefore they are called fruits. They are also called flowers with respect to future beatitude, because just as from flowers hope of fruit is received, so from the works of the virtues there is had hope of eternal life and beatitude. And just as in the flower there is a certain inchoation of the fruit, so in the works of the virtues there is a certain inchoation of beatitude, which will come to be when knowledge and charity are perfected.

And through this the response to what is objected second is clear. For something can be said to be desired for its own sake in two ways, because the word "for" [propter] can designate a formal cause or a final cause. The works of the virtues are to be desired for their own sake formally, but not finally, because they have delight in themselves. For sweet medicine is desired for its own sake formally, because it has in itself that from which it is desirable, namely sweetness, which nevertheless is also desired for the sake of an end, namely for the sake of health. But bitter medicine is not to be desired for its own sake formally, because it does not delight by reason of its form; nevertheless it is desired finally for the sake of something else, namely for the sake of health, which is its end.

From these things the reason appears why the Apostle calls the effects of the flesh "works," but the fruits of the Spirit he calls "fruits." For it has been said that fruit is called something final and sweet, produced from a thing. But what is produced from something apart from its nature does not have the character of fruit, but is as it were of another growth. Now the works of the flesh and sins are apart from the nature of those things which God implanted in our nature. For God implanted certain seeds in human nature, namely the natural appetite for the good and knowledge, and He also added the gifts of grace. And therefore, because the works of the virtues are naturally produced from these, they are called fruits, but not the works of the flesh. And on account of this the Apostle says, Romans 6:21: "what fruit therefore did you then have in those things of which you are now ashamed?"

It is clear, therefore, from what has been said, that the fruits of the Spirit are said to be the works of the virtues, both because they have in themselves sweetness and delight, and because they are a certain ultimate thing produced according to the fittingness of the gifts.

Now the difference among the gifts, the beatitudes, the virtues, and the fruits, one to another, is taken in this way. For in virtue one must consider the habit and the act. Now the habit of virtue perfects toward acting well. And if indeed it perfects toward operating well in a human manner, it is called virtue. But if it perfects toward operating well above the human manner, it is called a gift. Hence the Philosopher, above the common virtues, places certain heroic virtues; for instance, to know the invisible things of God under a riddle is according to the human manner, and this knowledge pertains to the virtue of faith; but to know them clearly and above the human manner pertains to the gift of understanding. But the act of virtue either is perfecting: and thus it is beatitude; or is delighting: and thus it is fruit. And concerning these fruits it is said, Apocalypse 22:2: "on either side the tree of life bearing twelve fruits," etc.

He says, therefore, "the fruit of the Spirit" — which namely arises in the soul from the seeding of spiritual grace — "is charity," etc.; and these indeed are distinguished thus: because the fruits either perfect a person interiorly, or exteriorly. First, therefore, he sets down those which perfect interiorly; second, those which perfect exteriorly, at "goodness," etc.

Now interiorly man is perfected and directed both with regard to good things and with regard to evil things. 2 Corinthians 6:7: "through the arms of justice on the right hand and on the left." Now with regard to good things he perfects, first indeed in the heart through love. For just as among natural motions the first is the inclination of the appetite of nature toward its end, so the first of the interior motions is the inclination toward the good, which is called love, and therefore the first fruit is charity. Romans 5:5: "the charity of God is poured forth in our hearts," etc. And from charity the others are perfected, and therefore the Apostle says, Colossians 3:14: "above all things having charity," etc.

Now the ultimate end by which man is perfected interiorly is joy, which proceeds from the presence of the thing loved. Now he who has charity already has what he loves. 1 John 4:16: "he who abides in charity abides in God, and God in him." And from this joy arises. Philippians 4:4: "rejoice in the Lord always," etc.

But this joy ought to be perfect. And for this two things are required. First, that the thing loved be sufficient for the lover on account of its perfection. And as to this he says "peace." For then does the lover have peace, when he sufficiently possesses the thing loved. Song of Songs, last chapter: "since I became before him as one finding peace," etc. Second, that there be present a perfect enjoyment of the thing loved, which is likewise had through peace, because, whatever may supervene, if someone perfectly enjoys the thing loved, namely God, he cannot be impeded from the enjoyment of it. Psalm 118:165: "much peace to those loving your law, and there is no stumbling block for them." Thus, then, joy denotes the enjoyment of charity, but peace the perfection of charity. And through these man is perfected interiorly with respect to good things.

With regard to evils also the Holy Spirit perfects and orders, and first against the evil which disturbs peace, which is disturbed through adversities. But for this the Holy Spirit perfects through patience, which makes one tolerate adversities patiently, and therefore he says "patience." Luke 21:19: "in your patience you shall possess your souls." James 1:4: "patience has a perfect work." Second, against the evil impeding joy — which is the delay of the thing loved — the Spirit opposes longanimity, which is not broken by waiting. And as to this he says "longanimity." Habakkuk 2:3: "if he shall make a delay, wait for him, for," etc. 2 Corinthians 6:6: "in longanimity," etc. And therefore the Lord says, Matthew 10:22: "he who shall have persevered unto the end," etc.

Consequently, when he says "goodness," etc., he sets down the fruits of the Spirit which perfect with respect to exterior things. Now the exterior things of man are either that which is next to him, or that which is above him, or that which is below him. Next to him is the neighbor; above him, God; below him, sensitive nature and the body.

Thus, then, with respect to the neighbor, he perfects first indeed in the heart through a right and good will. And as to this he says "goodness," that is, the rightness and sweetness of the soul. For if a man have all his other powers good, he cannot be called a good man unless he has a good will, according to which he uses all the others well. The reason for this is that the good denotes something perfect. Now there is a twofold perfection. The first, namely, which is the very being of the thing; but the second is its operation, and this is greater than the first. That, therefore, is called simply perfect which attains to its perfect operation, which is its second perfection. Since, then, man through the will goes forth into the act of any power whatsoever, a right will makes for the good use of all the powers, and, consequently, makes the man himself good. And concerning this fruit it is said, Ephesians 5:9: "for the fruit of the light is in all goodness," etc.

Second, indeed, in work, namely that he communicate his own goods to his neighbor, and as to this he says "benignity," that is, generosity of goods. 2 Corinthians 9:7: "for God loves a cheerful giver," etc. For benignity is called as it were a good fieriness, which makes a man flow forth to relieve the necessities of others. Wisdom 1:6: "for the spirit of wisdom is benign," etc. Colossians 3:12: "put on therefore, as the elect of God, holy and beloved, the bowels of mercy, benignity," etc.

Likewise they also perfect with respect to evils inflicted by others, so that one may bear meekly and sustain the troubles of the neighbor; and as to this he says "mildness." Matthew 11:29: "learn from me, for," etc. Proverbs 3:34: "to the meek he will give grace."

But toward that which is above us, namely God, the Spirit orders through faith, whence he says "faith," which is a certain knowledge of things unseen with certitude. Genesis 15:6: "Abraham believed God, and it was reputed to him unto justice." Hebrews 11:6: "he who comes to God must believe," etc. And therefore Ecclesiasticus 1:34: "faith is well-pleasing to God, and mildness," etc.

Toward that which is below us, namely the body, the Spirit directs, and first with respect to the exterior acts of the body, which is done through modesty, which imposes a measure upon these very acts or words; and as to this he says "modesty." Philippians 4:5: "let your modesty," etc. Second, indeed, with respect to the interior sensitive appetite, and as to this he says "continency," which even abstains from lawful things, and "chastity," which rightly uses lawful things, according to the Gloss. Or otherwise, continency is so called from the fact that although a man is assailed by depraved concupiscences, nevertheless through the vigor of reason he holds himself, lest he be led away; and therefore the name of continency is taken from the fact that someone holds himself in the assault. But chastity is so called from the fact that one is neither assailed nor led away, and it is named from "chastening." For we call him well chastened who in all things conducts himself in an orderly manner.

Concerning this two things are doubted. First, because since the fruits of the Spirit are opposed to the works of the flesh, it seems that the Apostle ought to have set down as many fruits of the Spirit as he set down works of the flesh, which he did not do. To this it must be said that he did not do so because there are more vices than virtues.

Second, it is doubted, because the fruits of the Spirit set down here do not correspond to the works of the flesh. To this it must be said that the Apostle does not intend here to hand down a system of virtues and vices, and therefore he does not set one against the other, but enumerates some of the one and some of the other, according as seems expedient to the present intention. Nevertheless, if it is carefully considered, they do to some extent correspond to each other in opposition. For to fornication, which is unlawful love, charity corresponds in opposition; but to uncleanness, immodesty, and luxury, which are carnal enticements and proceed from fornication, joy is set in opposition, which is the spiritual delight following from charity, as has been said. But to that which is the service of idols, peace is set in opposition. But to that which says "sorceries," etc., up to "dissensions": patience, longanimity, and goodness. But to that which is called "sects," faith is set in opposition. But to that which is called "envies," benignity. But to that which is called "murders," mildness. To that which is called "drunkenness, revelings," and things like these, modesty, continency, and chastity are set in opposition.

Having enumerated the works of the flesh and of the spirit, here he consequently concludes from both that those who follow the spirit are not under the law. And he uses this proof: he is under the law who is subject to the law, that is, who does things contrary to the law; but those who are led by the spirit do not do works contrary to the law; therefore they are not under the law. First, therefore, he shows the proposition on the part of the works of the spirit; second, on the part of the works of the flesh, at "But they who are," etc.

He says therefore: I say that those who are led by the spirit do not do works contrary to the law, because either they do the works of the spirit, and "against such there is no law," that is, against the works of the spirit — rather the spirit teaches them. For just as the law teaches the works of the virtues outwardly, so too the spirit moves toward them inwardly. Romans 7:22: "For I delight in the law of God according to the inner man," etc. Or they do the works of the flesh, and these, in those who are led by the spirit of God, are not contrary to the law. Hence he says, "But they who are Christ's," that is, who have the spirit of God. Romans 8:9: "He who does not have the spirit of God, this one is not his." Those, therefore, are led by the spirit of God, who are Christ's.

These, I say, "have crucified their flesh," etc. He does not say: they avoid vices and concupiscences, because a good physician then cures well, when he applies remedies against the cause of the disease. But the flesh is the root of the vices. If therefore we wish to avoid the vices, it is necessary to tame the flesh. 1 Corinthians 9:27: "I chastise my body," etc. But because the flesh is tamed by vigils, fasts, and labors — Ecclesiasticus 33:28: "For an ill-disposed servant, torture and fetters," etc. — but because they are moved to these works out of the devotion which they have toward Christ crucified, therefore he significantly says "crucified," that is, they conformed themselves to Christ crucified, by afflicting their flesh, etc. Romans 6:6: "Our old man is crucified together with him," etc. Above, chapter 2: "That I may live to God, I am fixed to the cross with Christ," etc.

But because they do not crucify the flesh by destroying nature — since "no one ever hated his own flesh," as is said in Ephesians 5:29 — but with respect to those things which are contrary to the law, therefore he says "with the vices," that is, with the sins, "and concupiscences," that is, with the passions, by which the soul is inclined to sin. For he does not crucify the flesh well who does not also take away room for the passions; otherwise, since reason does not always watch to avoid sins as it ought, he could at some point fall. Ecclesiasticus 18:30: "Go not after your concupiscences," etc. Romans 13:14: "Make not provision for the flesh in its desires," etc.

Consequently, when he says "If we live by the spirit," etc., he sets down the third benefit of the Holy Spirit, namely that it confers life. And first he sets down the benefit of the spirit of God; second he excludes the vices of the spirit of the world, at "let us not be made," etc.

He says therefore, numbering himself among those to whom he writes: I say that we ought to walk by the spirit, because it is by it that we live, and not by the flesh. Romans 8:12: "We are debtors not to the flesh," etc. If therefore we live by the spirit, we ought in all things to be led by it. For just as in the bodily life the body is not moved except by the soul through which it lives, so in the spiritual life every motion of ours ought to be from the Holy Spirit. John 6:64: "It is the spirit that gives life." Acts 17:28: "In him we live, and move, and are."

And lest the things that have been said about the spirit be understood of the spirit of the world, concerning which it is said in 1 Corinthians 2:12: "But we have not received the spirit of this world," therefore the Apostle consequently removes this, saying "let us not be made," etc., where he excludes three things proper to the spirit of the world, namely vainglory, wrath, and envy, to which three the name "spirit" can fittingly be applied. For "spirit" signifies a certain inflation. Hence, according to this, those are called vain spirits who are puffed up by vainglory. Isaiah 25:4: "The spirit of the mighty is like a whirlwind beating against the wall," etc.

And with respect to this he says "let us not be made desirous of vain glory," that is, of worldly glory. For since that is vain which is neither solidly established, nor supported by truth, nor loved for its usefulness, therefore the glory of this world is vain: because it is fleeting and not solid — Isaiah 40:6: "All flesh is grass," etc. — and because it is false — 1 Maccabees 2:62: "The glory of a sinful man is dung and worms," etc. But true glory is in a man's own goods, which are spiritual goods, and the saints have this. 2 Corinthians 1:12: "This is our glory, the testimony of our conscience," etc. And because it is useless and unfruitful: for however much glory someone may have from the testimony of worldly people, he cannot on that account attain his end, which he attains by the testimony of God. 1 Corinthians 1:31: "He who glories, let him glory in the Lord." But he does not say: do not have vainglory, but "be not made desirous," because glory sometimes follows those who flee it, and if it must be received, nevertheless it should not be loved.

Likewise, it signifies a certain impetuosity. Proverbs 27:4: "Who shall be able to bear the onslaught of a spirit provoked?" And it signifies wrath. And with respect to this he says "provoking one another," namely to contention, or strife, or other unlawful things. Romans 13:13: "not in contention and emulation," etc.

Likewise there is the spirit of sadness, concerning which it is said in Proverbs 17:22: "The spirit dries up the bones." And with respect to this he says "envying one another." Proverbs 14:30: "Envy is the rottenness of the bones," etc. The reason for this is that it alone grows from what is good.