Commentary on Romans (Super Epistolam B. Pauli ad Romanos Lectura)

After the Apostle has shown the necessity of the grace of Christ — because without it neither did the knowledge of truth profit the Gentiles, nor circumcision and the law profit the Jews, unto salvation — here he begins to commend the power of grace. And concerning this he does two things. First he shows what goods we obtain through grace; second, from what evils we are freed through it, at the place "therefore as through one man," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth the manner of arriving, or the way by which we come to grace; second he shows the goods which we obtain through grace, at the place "and we glory in the hope of glory," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he exhorts to the due use of grace; second he shows us the entrance to grace, at the place "through whom access," etc.

He says therefore first: it has been said that faith will be reckoned unto righteousness for all who believe in the resurrection of Christ, which is the cause of our justification. Being justified therefore by faith — that is, insofar as through faith in the resurrection we participate in its effect — let us have peace with God, namely by subjecting ourselves and obeying him. Job 22:21: "Acquiesce therefore to him, and have peace." Job 9:4: "Who has resisted him, and had peace?" And this through Jesus Christ our Lord, who has led us to this peace. Ephesians 2:14: "He himself is our peace." Hence he adds: through whom, namely Christ, we have access, that is, as through a mediator. Timothy 2:5: "the mediator of God and men," etc. Ephesians 2:18: "through him we both have access in one Spirit to the Father." Access, I say, into this grace, that is, into the state of grace. John 1:17: "grace and truth were made through Jesus Christ." In which, that is, through which grace, not only have we risen from sins, but we also stand, fixed and erect in affection amid heavenly things. Psalm 120:21: "our feet were standing." And again: "we, however, have risen, and are erect." And this through faith, through which, namely, we obtain grace — not because faith precedes grace, since rather faith exists through grace. Ephesians 2:8: "by grace you are saved through faith," namely, because the first effect of grace in us is faith.

Then, when he says "and we glory in the hope of glory," etc., he shows what goods have come to us through grace. First he says that through grace we have the glory of hope; second, that through grace we have the glory of God, at the place "and not only so," etc. Concerning the first he does three things. First he shows the greatness of the hope in which we glory; second, its vehemence, at the place "and not only so," etc. Third, its firmness, at the place "and hope does not confound," etc.

Now the greatness of the hope is considered from the greatness of the thing hoped for, which he sets down saying, "and we glory in the hope of the glory of the sons of God," that is, from the fact that we hope that we will obtain the glory of the sons of God. For through the grace of Christ we have obtained the spirit of adoption of the sons of God, as is said below in chapter 8:15, and Wisdom 5:5: "behold how they are numbered among the sons of God." Now to sons is owed the inheritance of the father — below 8:17: "but if sons, then heirs also." But this inheritance is the glory which God has in himself. Job 40:4: "if you have an arm like God," etc. And a hope of this kind has been implanted in us through Christ. 1 Peter 1:3f.: "he has regenerated us unto a living hope, through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead, unto an incorruptible inheritance," etc. And this glory, which will be fulfilled in us in the future, is meanwhile now begun in us through hope. Below 8:24: "we are saved by hope." Psalm 5:12: "all who love your name will glory in you."

Then, when he says "and not only so," etc., he shows the vehemence of this hope. For he who vehemently hopes for something willingly endures, for its sake, even difficult and bitter things — just as a sick man, if he vehemently hopes for health, willingly drinks a bitter potion that he may be healed by it. A sign, therefore, of the vehement hope which we have on account of Christ is that we glory not only from the hope of future glory, but also concerning the evils which we suffer for its sake; hence he says, and not only do we glory — namely, in the hope of glory — but we also glory in tribulations, through which we arrive at glory. Acts 14:21: "through many tribulations we must enter into the kingdom of heaven." James 1:2: "count it all joy, my brothers, when you fall into various trials." And he then shows the cause, saying "knowing," etc. Where he sets down four things in order, of which the first is tribulation, concerning which it is said that tribulation works patience — not indeed in such a way that tribulation is its efficient cause, but because tribulation is the matter and occasion for exercising the act of patience. Below 12:12: "patient in tribulation."

Second, he sets down the effect of patience, when he says "patience, trial." Ecclesiasticus 2:5: "gold and silver are tried in the fire: but acceptable men in the furnace of humiliation." For it is manifest that we easily endure the loss of some thing for the sake of the thing which we love more. Hence if someone patiently endures loss in bodily and temporal things for the sake of obtaining eternal goods, it is sufficiently proved from this that such a one loves eternal goods more than temporal ones. But against what is said here stands that saying of James 1:3: "the trial of your faith works patience." It must be said, however, that "trial" can be understood in two ways. In one way, according as it is in the thing tried, and thus the trial is the very tribulation by which a man is tried; hence it is the same thing to say that tribulation works patience, and that tribulation tries patience. In another way, "trial" is taken for having been tried — and thus it is taken here that patience works trial, because from the fact that a man patiently endures tribulation, he is thereby rendered already proved. Third, he adds the third, saying "and trial, hope" — namely, works — because, namely, from the fact that someone has already been proved, hope can be had, both by himself and by others, that he will be admitted to the inheritance of God. Wisdom 3:5: "God tried them, and found them worthy of himself." Thus therefore, from the first to the last, it is clear that tribulation prepares the way to hope. Hence if someone glories vehemently in hope, it follows that he should glory also in the tribulations themselves.

Then, when he says "and hope does not confound," he shows the firmness of this hope. And first he sets it down, saying: and hope — namely, this hope by which we hope for the glory of the sons of God — does not confound, that is, does not fail, unless a man fails it. For that man is said to be confounded by his hope who falls short of that which he hopes for. Psalm 30:2: "in you, Lord, have I hoped, let me never be confounded." Ecclesiastes 2:11: "no one has hoped in the Lord, and been confounded."

Second, at the place "because the charity of God," etc., he sets down a twofold argument for the certainty of hope, of which the first is from the gift of the Holy Spirit, the second from the death of Christ, at the place "for why did Christ," etc. He says therefore first: from this we can know that hope does not confound, because the charity of God is poured forth in our hearts, through the Holy Spirit who has been given to us. Now the charity of God can be taken in two ways. In one way, for the charity by which God loves us — Jeremiah 31:3: "with an everlasting charity have I loved you"; in another way it can be called the charity of God by which we love God — below 8:38f.: "I am certain that neither death nor life will separate us from the charity of God." But each charity of God is poured forth in our hearts through the Holy Spirit who has been given to us. For the Holy Spirit, who is the love of the Father and the Son, to be given to us, is for us to be led to a participation in that love which is the Holy Spirit; from which participation, indeed, we are made lovers of God. And this, that we love him, is a sign that he loves us. Proverbs 8:17: "I love those who love me." Not as though we had first loved God, but because he first loved us, as is said in 1 John 4:10.

Now the charity by which he loves us is said to be poured forth in our hearts, because it is openly shown in our hearts through the gift of the Holy Spirit impressed upon us. John 3:24: "in this we know that God abides in us," etc. But the charity by which we love God is said to be poured forth in our hearts, that is, because it extends itself to perfecting all the habits and acts of the soul; for, as is said in 1 Corinthians 13:4: "charity is patient, is kind," etc. But from each understanding of these words it is concluded that hope does not confound. For if the charity of God by which God loves us is taken, it is manifest that he will not deny himself to those whom he loves. Deuteronomy 33:3: "he loved the peoples, all the saints are in his hand." Likewise also, if the charity of God by which we love God is taken, it is manifest that he has prepared eternal goods for those who love him. John 14:21: "if anyone loves me, he will be loved by my Father," etc.

After the Apostle showed the firmness of hope through the gift of the Holy Spirit, here he shows the same thing through the death of Christ. And first he sets forth the question; second he shows the difficulty, at the place "for scarcely for a just man," etc.; third he determines the truth of the question, at the place "but God commends his charity," etc.

He says therefore first: it has been said that hope does not confound, which indeed appears to one considering this: "for why did Christ, when as yet we were weak" — namely, with the weakness of sin — die? Psalm 6:3: "Have mercy on me, O Lord, for I am weak." For just as through bodily weakness the due harmony of the humors is dissolved, so too through sin the due order of the affections is excluded. When therefore we were still weak, "Christ died for the ungodly." 1 Peter 3:18: "Christ died once for our sins, the just for the unjust." And this "according to the time," that is, that at a fixed time he would remain in death, namely to rise on the third day. Matthew 12:40: "As Jonah was in the belly of the whale three days and three nights, so shall the Son of Man be in the heart of the earth." This therefore is a great thing, if we consider who died. It is great also if we consider for whom he died. But it cannot be so great a thing unless it be done for the sake of some certain fruit, according to that word of Psalm 29:10: "What profit is there in my blood, while I go down into corruption?" As if to say: none, if the salvation of the human race does not follow.

Then when he says, "for scarcely for a just man," etc., he shows the difficulty of the aforesaid question on the part of those for whom Christ died, namely for the ungodly, saying, "for scarcely will anyone" — that is, someone — "die" for the sake of freeing a just man; nay rather, as it is said, Isaiah 57:1: "The just man perishes, and there is no one who considers it in his heart," etc. Therefore I say scarcely does one die, for "perhaps someone" — that is, some rare person, out of zeal for virtue — "might dare to die for a good man." For it is rare on account of this, that it is the greatest thing, as indeed it is said, John 15:13: "Greater love than this hath no man," etc. But that which Christ did — that someone should die for the ungodly and the unjust — is never found. And therefore it is rightly to be wondered at, why Christ did this.

But it can also be read otherwise, so that by "just" we understand someone practiced in virtue; and by "good," an innocent man. And although according to this the just man is more excellent than the good man, nevertheless for the just man scarcely does anyone die. The reason for this is that the innocent one, who is understood by "good," seems more pitiable on account of a defect of age or something of this kind. The just man, however, because he is perfect and without defect, does not have in himself the malice of mercy. That someone, therefore, should die for an innocent man can come about from compassion of mercy; but that someone should die for a just man comes about from zeal for virtue, which is found in fewer than the passion of mercy.

Then when he says, "but he commends," etc., he responds to the aforesaid question. And first he sets forth the response; second, from this he argues to his proposal, at the place "much more then," etc.; third he shows the necessity of the inference, at the place "for if, when we were enemies," etc. He says therefore first: it has been asked why Christ died for the ungodly; and to this there is a response, that by this "God commends his charity in us," that is, by this he shows himself to love us most greatly, since "if while we were still sinners, Christ died for us," and this "according to the time," as was explained above. But the very death of Christ for us shows the charity of God, because he gave his Son, that, making satisfaction for us, he might die. John 3:16: "So God loved the world, that he gave his only-begotten Son," etc. And thus, just as the charity of God the Father toward us is shown by the fact that he gave us his Spirit, as was said above, so too by the fact that he gave his Son, as is said here. But in saying "commends," he assigns a certain immensity of divine charity, which indeed is shown both from the very deed itself, namely that he gave his Son to die for us, and on the part of our condition, because he did not do this provoked by our merits, since we were still sinners. Ephesians 2:4 and following: "God, who is rich in mercy, on account of his exceeding charity with which he loved us, even when we were dead in sins, brought us to life together in Christ," etc.

Consequently, when he said "much more then," etc., he concludes his proposal from the foregoing, saying: if Christ died for us while we were still sinners, much more, "now" being "brought to life" "in his blood" — as was held above at 3:25, whom God set forth as a propitiator through faith — through his blood "we shall be saved from wrath," that is, from the vengeance of eternal damnation, which men incur on account of their sins. Matthew 3:7: "Offspring of vipers, who hath shown you," etc.

Then when he says, "for if, when we were enemies," etc., he shows the necessity of the aforesaid inference, which proceeds by affirming from the lesser to the greater. And there a twofold comparison of the lesser to the greater is to be observed: one indeed on our part, the other on the part of Christ. On our part indeed, he compares enemies to those reconciled. For it seems a lesser thing that someone should do good to enemies, than to those already reconciled. On the part of Christ, he compares death to life. For his life seems more powerful than his death, because, as it is said at the end of 2 Corinthians: "he died from weakness" — namely, of our flesh — "but he lives from the power of God." And therefore he says: it is concluded by reason, that much more, being brought to life, we shall be saved through him. "For if, when we were enemies, we were reconciled to God," and this through the death of his Son: "much more," now that "we" are "reconciled," "shall we be saved," and this "in his life."

Now it must be considered that man is said to be an enemy of God in two ways. In one way, because he exercises enmity against God, while he resists his commands. Job 15:26: "He hath run against God with his neck erect." In another way, by this, that God holds men in hatred — not indeed according to that which he made, for as to this it is said, Wisdom 11:25: "Thou hast loved all things, and hast hated nothing of the things which thou hast made," etc.; but as to that which, in man, "an enemy man" — that is, the Devil — has done, that is, as to sin. Wisdom 14:9: "the ungodly is likewise hateful to God," etc. And Ecclesiasticus 12:7: "The Most High hateth sinners."

The cause of enmity, namely sin, having been removed through Christ, reconciliation follows through him. 2 Corinthians 5:19: "God was in him, reconciling the world to himself." But our sin was taken away through the death of his Son. Concerning which it must be considered that the death of Christ can be considered in three ways.

In one way, according to the very nature of death itself. And thus it is said, Wisdom 1:13: "God did not make death" in human nature, but it was brought in through sin. And therefore the death of Christ, from the common nature of death, was not so acceptable to God that reconciliation should be through it, because God "does not rejoice in the perdition of the living," as it is said, Wisdom 1:13.

In another way the death of Christ can be considered according as it lies in the action of those killing him, which was most displeasing to God. Whence, against them, Peter says, Acts 3:14: "You denied the Holy One and the Just, and asked for a murderer," etc. Whence the death of Christ, considered in this way, could not be the cause of reconciliation, but rather of indignation.

In a third way it can be considered according as it proceeded from the will of Christ suffering, which will indeed was formed to the enduring of death, both from obedience toward the Father, Philippians 2:8: "he became obedient to the Father even unto death," and also from charity toward men, Ephesians 5:2: "he loved us and delivered himself up for us." And from this the death of Christ was meritorious and satisfactory for our sins, and so far acceptable to God, that it suffices for the reconciliation of all men, even of those who killed Christ, some of whom were saved by his own prayer, when he said, Luke 23:34: "Forgive them, for they know not what they do."

Then when he says, "and not only," etc., he shows what goods we now actually obtain through grace, saying: "and not only do we glory" — in the hope of glory which we await in the future — "but also in God," that is, in the fact that we are even now joined to God through faith and charity, 1 Corinthians 1:31, and 2 Corinthians 10:17: "He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord," etc. And this indeed "through our Lord Jesus Christ," through whom, even now in the present time, "we have received reconciliation," so that of enemies we have become friends. Colossians 1:20: "through him it pleased [God] to reconcile all things," etc.

But it could also be connected with what was said: "we shall be saved" in his life from sin and from punishment, and not only shall we be saved from evils, but we also glory in God, that is, by this, that in the future we shall be one with him. John 17:22: "that they may be one in us, as we also are one."

After the Apostle showed what goods we have obtained through the grace of Christ, here he consequently shows from what evils we are freed through it. And concerning this he does three things. For first he shows that through the grace of Christ we are freed from the servitude of sin. Second he shows that through his grace we are freed from the servitude of the law, chapter 7, where he says, "know you not, brethren," and so on. Third he shows that through the grace of Christ we are freed from damnation, chapter 8, where he says, "there is now no condemnation," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows that through the grace of Christ we are freed from past original sin; second he shows that, kept safe by it, we are ruled against future sins, where he says, "what shall we say then," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he treats of the process of sin; second, of the process of grace destroying sin, where he says, "but not as the offense," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth the process of sin; second he makes it clear, where he says, "until the law," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth the process of sin; second he shows its universality, where he says, "and so unto all," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows the origin of sin; second, the origin of death, where he says, "and by sin death," and so on.

He says therefore first that through Christ we have received reconciliation. For thus does reconciliation proceed from Christ into the world, just as through one man, namely through Adam, sin entered into this world. 1 Corinthians 15:22: "as in Adam all die, so also in Christ all shall be made alive." Now here it must be considered that the Pelagian heretics, denying that original sin exists in infants, said that these words of the Apostle must be understood of actual sin. Which, according to them, entered into this world through Adam inasmuch as all who sin imitate the sin of Adam, according to Hosea 6:7: "but they, like Adam, have transgressed the covenant," and so on. But, as Augustine says against them, if the Apostle here were speaking of the entrance of actual sin, which is by imitation, he would not say that sin entered into this world through a man, but rather through the Devil, whom sinners imitate, according to Wisdom 2:24: "by the envy of the Devil death entered into the world," and so on. It must therefore be understood that through Adam sin entered into this world, not only by imitation but also by propagation, that is, through the vitiated origin of the flesh, according to Ephesians 2:3: "we were by nature children of wrath," and in Psalm 50:7: "for behold I was conceived in iniquities," and so on.

But this seems to be impossible, that through the origin of the flesh sin should be transmitted from one to another. For sin is in the rational soul, which is not transmitted through the origin of the flesh, both because the intellect is not the act of any body, and so cannot be caused by the power of the bodily seed, as the Philosopher says in the book On the Generation of Animals; and also because, since the rational soul is a certain subsisting thing — as having operation of itself, and not being corrupted when the body is corrupted — it consequently follows that it is not generated when the body is generated, as other forms are, which cannot subsist of themselves, but is rather caused by God. It seems to follow, therefore, that neither can sin, which is an accident of the soul, be transmitted through the origin of the flesh.

To this, however, it is reasonably answered that although the soul is not in the seed, there is nevertheless in the seed a power disposing the body to the reception of the soul, which, when it is infused into the body, is also in its own way conformed to it, because everything received is in the recipient according to the mode of the recipient. And hence we see that children are made like their parents, not only in bodily defects — as a leper begets a leper and a man with gout begets one with gout — but also in defects of the soul, as an irascible man is born of the irascible, and the demented from the demented. For although the foot, which is the subject of gout, is not in the seed, nor the soul, which is the subject of anger or dementia, there is nevertheless in the seed a formative power of the bodily members and one disposing toward the soul.

But still a doubt remains, because the defects that are drawn from a vitiated origin do not have the character of guilt. For they do not merit punishment, but rather mercy, as the Philosopher says of one who is born blind, or in whatever other way deprived. And this is because it belongs to the nature of guilt that it be voluntary and in the power of the man to whom the guilt is imputed. Thus, therefore, if some defect comes to us through the origin of our first parent, it does not seem to have in us the character of guilt, but of punishment.

And therefore it must be said that just as actual sin is the sin of a person, because it is committed through the will of the person sinning, so original sin is the sin of nature, which was committed through the will of the principle of human nature. For it must be considered that just as the diverse members of the body are parts of the one person of a man, so all men are parts and, as it were, certain members of human nature. Whence Porphyry too says that by participation in the species many men are one man. Now we see that an act of sin exercised through some member — say, through the hand or the foot — does not have the character of guilt from the will of the hand or the foot, but from the will of the whole man, from which, as from a certain principle, the movement of sin is derived to the individual members. And likewise from the will of Adam, who was the principle of human nature, the whole disorder of nature has the character of guilt in all to whom it comes, insofar as they are susceptible of guilt. And just as actual sin, which is the sin of a person, is drawn to the individual members through some personal act, so original sin is drawn to individual men through an act of nature, which is generation. And thus, just as human nature is drawn along through generation, so also through generation is transmitted the defect of human nature that has followed upon the sin of the first parent.

Now this defect is the lack of original justice, which had been divinely conferred upon the first man, not only as he was a certain singular person, but also as he was the principle of human nature, namely so that he might transmit it together with the nature into his posterity. And therefore in like manner he transmits to his posterity the loss of this original justice through sin, having in them the character of guilt, for the reason already stated. And therefore it is said that in the process of original sin the person infected the nature — namely Adam, sinning, vitiated human nature — but afterward, in others, the vitiated nature infects the person, namely when, upon one being begotten, the vice of nature is imputed as guilt on account of the will of the first parent, as has been said.

From this, moreover, it is clear that although the first sin of the first parent is transmitted through origin to his posterity, his other sins, or even those of other men, are not transmitted to their children, because through the first sin alone was the good of nature taken away, which was to be transmitted through the origin of nature. But through the other sins the good of personal grace is withdrawn, which does not pass on to other posterity. And from this it is also the case that although the sin of Adam was blotted out through his own repentance, according to Wisdom 10:2: "she brought him out of his sin," nevertheless his repentance could not blot out the sin of his posterity, because his repentance was through a personal act, since it did not extend beyond his own person. And on account of this there is only one original sin, because only the defect following upon the first sin is originally derived to posterity. And therefore the Apostle says in the singular that "through one man sin entered into this world," and did not say in the plural "sins" — which would have had to be said if he were speaking of actual sins. Original sins, however, are sometimes spoken of in the plural, as in Psalm 50:7: "in sins did my mother conceive me," because it contains virtually many sins, inasmuch as from the corruption of the tinder of sin we are inclined to many sins.

But it seems that original sin did not enter into this world through one man, namely Adam, but rather through one woman, namely Eve, who sinned first, according to Ecclesiasticus 25:33: "from the woman came the beginning of sin, and by her we all die." To this it is answered in the Gloss in two ways. In one way, because it is the custom of Scripture that genealogies be woven not through women but through men, as is clear in Matthew 1:1ff. and Luke 3:23ff. And therefore the Apostle here, wishing to show as it were a certain genealogy of sin, made no mention of the woman, but only of the man. In another way, because the woman too was taken from the man, and therefore what belongs to the woman is attributed to the man. It can also be said in another way, and better, that since original sin is transmitted together with the nature, as has been said, just as through the active power of the man — the woman supplying the matter — the nature is transmitted, so also is original sin. Whence, if Adam had not sinned, though Eve sinned, sin would not for this reason have been transmitted to posterity. For this is the reason why Christ did not draw original sin, because he received flesh from a woman alone, without male seed.

Through this word of the Apostle Augustine answers Julian the heretic, asking in this manner: he who is born does not sin, he who begot does not sin, he who fashioned does not sin — through what crevices, then, amid so many safeguards of innocence, do you feign that sin has entered in? But Augustine answers: why do you seek a hidden crevice, when you have a wide-open door? For according to the Apostle, "through one man sin entered into this world."

Next he touches upon the entrance of death into the world, when he says "and by sin death," namely, entered into this world, according to Wisdom 1: "injustice is the acquisition of death." But it seems that death is not from sin, but rather from nature, as arising from the necessity of matter. For the human body is composed of contraries. Whence it is naturally corruptible. It must be said, however, that human nature can be considered in two ways. In one way according to its intrinsic principles, and thus death is natural to it. Whence Seneca says in the book On Remedies for Chance Happenings that death is nature's due to man, not a punishment. In another way the nature of man can be considered according as it was provided for him, through original justice, by divine providence. Which justice indeed was a certain rectitude, such that the mind of man was subject to God, and the lower powers were subject to the mind, and the body subject to the soul, and all exterior things subject to man: in such a way, namely, that as long as the mind of man was subjected to God, the lower powers would be subjected to reason, and the body to the soul, receiving life from it without fail, and exterior things to man, so that all things would serve him, and he would suffer no harm from any of them. This, moreover, divine providence arranged on account of the dignity of the rational soul, which, since it is naturally incorruptible, an incorruptible body was owed to it. But because the body, which is composed of contraries, had to be the organ of sense, and such a body cannot by its own nature be incorruptible, the divine power supplied what was lacking to human nature, giving to the soul the power of maintaining the body incorruptibly — just as a smith, if he could, would give to the iron out of which he fashions a knife the power to contract no rust. Thus, therefore, after the mind of man was turned away from God through sin, it lost the power of holding together the lower powers, and also the body and exterior things, and thus it incurred natural death from intrinsic causes, and violent death from exterior harms.

Then, when he says "and so unto all," and so on, he shows the universality of this process both as to death and as to sin, though in reverse order. For above he first treated of the entrance of sin, which is the cause of the entrance of death, but now he first treats of the universality of death, as being the more manifest thing; and this is what he says: "and so death" — namely, or the sin of the first parent — "passed unto all," namely, because through a vitiated origin men contract the necessity of dying. 2 Kings 14:14: "we all die." Psalm 88:49: "who is the man that shall live," and so on. Then he touches upon the universality of the process of sin, when he says "in whom all have sinned," which, as Augustine says in the Gloss, can be understood in two ways. In one way, "in whom," namely in the first man, or "in which," namely in sin — because, namely, when he sinned, all in a certain manner sinned, inasmuch as they were in him as in their first origin. But since Christ too drew his origin from Adam, as is clear in Luke 3:23ff., it seems that he too, when Adam sinned, would have sinned. To this Augustine answers, in the Literal Commentary on Genesis, that Christ was not in Adam in every way in which we were: for we were in him both according to bodily substance and according to seminal principle. Christ, however, was in him only according to bodily substance.

Some, misunderstanding this, have thought that the whole substance of human bodies, which pertains to the truth of human nature, was actually in Adam, and that through a certain multiplication brought about by divine power — that is, that what was taken from Adam — was amplified into so great a quantity of bodies. But this is an unfitting thing, to attribute to a miracle what is a work of nature, especially since we see that the human body, however much it be of the truth of human nature, is corrupted and takes on another form. Whence, since everything generable is corruptible, and conversely, it must be said that the matter which, before the generation of a man, was under some form other than human, assumed the form of human flesh; and thus not everything that is in our bodies pertaining to the truth of nature was actually in him, but only according to origin, inasmuch as an effect is in its active principle.

According to this, then, it must be understood that since in our generation there is both the bodily matter which the woman supplies, and the active power which is in the seed of the male, both are derived by origin from Adam, as from a first principle. And therefore it is said that they were in him both according to seminal principle and according to bodily substance: because, namely, both proceeded from him. But in the generation of Christ there was the bodily substance which he drew from the Virgin; in place of the seminal principle, however, there was the active power of the Holy Spirit, which is not derived from Adam, and therefore it was not in Adam according to seminal principle, but only according to bodily substance. Thus, therefore, we receive sin from Adam and draw it from him, and we receive human nature from him, as from an active principle — which is, to be in him according to seminal principle — which indeed does not apply to Christ, as has been said.

It seems further that original sin does not pass into all, because the baptized are cleansed from original sin through Baptism; and thus it seems that they cannot transmit to their posterity a sin which they do not have. It must be said, however, that through Baptism a man is freed from original sin as to the mind, but the infection of sin remains as to the flesh; whence, below, chapter 7:25, the Apostle says: "I myself, with the mind, serve the law of God; but with the flesh, the law of sin." Now man does not beget carnal children with the mind, but with the flesh; and therefore he does not transmit the newness of Christ, but the oldness of Adam.

After the Apostle showed the origin of sin and of death, or the entrance of each into the world, here he manifests what he had said. And first he manifests the saying itself; secondly he manifests the likeness which he was hinting at when he said "therefore as," etc.; thirdly he expounds the likeness, at the words "who is a figure of him who was to come," etc. Now he had said that sin and death passed into all men, and this indeed, according to the exposition of Augustine, he intends to make manifest by the fact that even under the law sin remained, as though the law were not able to exclude it. Concerning which he does two things. First he manifests his proposition as regards sin; secondly, as regards death, at the words "but death reigned," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows that sin existed even under the law; secondly what the law does concerning sin, at the words "but sin," etc. He says therefore first: it has been said that all sinned in Adam, because not even the law took away sin. "Until the law," that is, even under the law, so that the word "until" is taken inclusively, "sin was in the world," which indeed can be understood of the law of nature and of the law of Moses; and likewise of actual sin and of original sin. For original sin was in the little child until the law of nature, that is, until the use of reason, by which man takes notice of such laws. Psalm 50:6: "in sins my mother conceived me." Nor yet does this sin cease when the law of nature comes upon a man; rather it grows greater by the addition of actual sin, because, as is said in Ecclesiastes 7:21, "there is not a just man upon earth, that doeth good," etc. But if we understand it of the law of Moses, then what is said—that sin was in the world until the law—can be understood not only of original sin but also of actual sin; because both before the law and under the law each sin remained, Proverbs 20:9: "who can say: my heart is clean?" But although the law did not take away sin, it nevertheless brought about the knowledge of sin, which before was not known. Whence he adds, "but sin was not imputed." Which indeed is plain, if it be understood of the law of nature. For although original sin is in the little child before the law of nature, and is reckoned to him by God, yet it is not imputed to him among men. But if it be understood of the law of Moses, it is plain as regards certain actual sins, that they were not imputed before the law, such as those which are specially forbidden by the law, which men did not reckon to be sins, as is said in Exodus 20:17: "thou shalt not covet," etc. Yet certain sins were imputed insofar as they were against the law of nature. Whence also in Genesis 39:11 and following, Joseph is read to have been cast into prison on account of the adultery imputed to him. Consequently he treats of death, saying: although sins before the law were not imputed, yet death—namely spiritually, that is, sin or eternal damnation, of which it is said in Psalm 33:21, "the death of the wicked is very evil"—"reigned," that is, exercised its power over men, leading them into damnation, "from Adam," through whom sin entered into the world, "unto Moses," under whom the law was given, John 1:17: "the law was given by Moses." Not only over those who sinned actually, but even over those "who have not sinned, after the similitude of the transgression of Adam," who sinned actually. Hosea 6:7: "but they, like Adam, have transgressed the covenant"—there they have dealt treacherously against me—because even children incurred damnation. It can also be understood in this sense of bodily death, through which it is manifested that sin existed even when it was not imputed, as if he were to say: "sin was not imputed," before the law, but from this it is discovered to have existed, because "death reigned," namely bodily death, first indeed by bringing on certain sufferings, for instance hunger and thirst and sickness, and at last by dissolving man wholly, even over those "who have not sinned after the similitude of the transgression of Adam," that is, over children, who did not sin actually: since these too suffer bodily death both before and afterward, according to Psalm 88:47: "what man is he," etc. Ambrose, however, expounded these words otherwise, namely of actual sin only and of the law of Moses. And according to him these words are brought in to manifest that through the first parent sin entered into this world and passed into all. For "until the law," that is, before the law of Moses, "sin was in the world," namely actual sin. For men sinned in many ways against the law of nature. Whence it is said in Genesis 13:13: "the men of Sodom were exceeding wicked." But "sin was not imputed when there was no law," which is to be understood, not that it was not imputed as something to be punished among men, since certain persons are read to have been punished by men before the law for their sins, as is plain in Genesis 39 and 40, but it was not imputed as something to be punished by God. For at that time men did not believe that God either punished or rewarded human deeds, according to Job 22:14: "he walketh about the poles of heaven, and doth not consider our things." But afterward, the law having been divinely given, it became known that sins are imputed by God unto punishment, and not only by men. And therefore, because men did not believe that they would be punished by God for their sins, they sinned freely and without restraint wherever they did not fear human judgment. And therefore he adds: "but death," that is, sin, "reigned," that is, exercised its power in every way, "from Adam unto Moses," exclusively. For through Moses the law was given, which began to diminish the reign of sin, instilling fear of the divine judgment, according to Deuteronomy 5:29: "who shall give them to have such a mind, that they should fear me, and keep all my commandments?" Sin reigned, I say, until Moses, yet not over all, but over those "who have sinned after the similitude of the transgression of Adam." For Ambrose says that in the ancient books this negation "not" is not found, whence he believes it was inserted by corruptors. For Adam indeed believed the promise of the Devil more than the divine threat, as is plain in Genesis 3, and thus in a certain manner preferred the Devil to God. So then, after the similitude of the transgression of Adam, idolaters transgress, who, having abandoned the worship of God, worship the Devil. Over such, then, death, that is, sin, reigned wholly, because it possessed them entirely. But there were, before the law of Moses, true worshippers of God, who, even if they sinned, yet sin did not reign in them, because it did not wholly separate them from God: but they sinned under God, that is, under the faith of the one God, even if they sinned mortally; or under the charity of God, when they sinned venially. From each of these two expositions a third can be compounded, which seems more to pertain to the intention of the Apostle. For he had said that "through one man sin entered into this world," and because sin is the transgression of the divine law, it might seem to someone that this was not true as regards the time before the law, especially since above, in chapter 4:15, he had said: "where there is no law, neither is there transgression." And therefore someone might believe that sin entered into the world not through one man, but rather through the law. And therefore, to exclude this, he says that "until the law," that is, the time before the law, "sin was in the world," both original and actual, yet it was not sin that was known, especially as something to be punished by God. And this is what he adds, "but sin was not imputed," namely as existing against God, "when the law," namely the law divinely given, "was not." For there were some, as the Philosopher says in Ethics V, who believed that nothing is just by nature, and consequently nothing unjust either, but only by the mere positing of human law. And according to this, no sin was imputed, as something existing against God, and especially original sin, that is, it was not known. But that this reckoning of men was false is shown by its effect, because bodily death reigned from Adam, through whom original sin entered into the world, unto Moses, under whom the law was given; and so, since death is the effect of sin, chiefly original sin, it is manifest that before the law there was original sin in the world. And lest anyone say that they died on account of actual sins, to exclude this he says that it reigned even over those who did not sin by their own act, namely children, and even over the just who did not sin mortally, who nevertheless sinned in the first man, as was said above. And therefore he adds, "after the similitude of the transgression of Adam," insofar as they drew the likeness of that sin by origin together with the likeness of nature; as if he were to say that the fact that they died without their own sin demonstrates that in them the likeness of Adam's sin was diffused through origin. And this is what the Apostle intends to manifest, namely that through Adam original sin entered into the world.

Then, when he says "who is a figure of him who was to come," etc., he expounds the likeness which was implied in the adverb "as." Whence he says that "he," namely Adam, "is a form," that is, a certain figure, "of him who was to come," that is, of Christ, yet by contrariety. For as through Adam sin and death entered into the world, so through Christ justice and life entered. 1 Corinthians 15:47: "the first man was of the earth, earthly: the second man, from heaven, heavenly." There are, moreover, also other likenesses between Christ and Adam, namely that as the body of Adam was formed without coitus, so too the body of Christ was formed of a virgin. And as the woman was taken from the side of Adam while he slept, so from the side of Christ, sleeping on the cross, there flowed blood and water, as is said in John 19:34, which signify the sacraments by which the Church was formed.

After the Apostle set forth the entrance of sin into this world, here he treats of the advance of grace abolishing sin. And concerning this he does two things. First, he shows how through the grace of Christ the sin was removed which entered into the world through one man; second, he shows how through the grace of Christ the sin was removed which had abounded still more when the law came in, at the place "but the law entered in besides," and so on.

Now he shows that through the grace of Christ the sin introduced into the world through Adam is removed, by comparing the grace of Christ to the sin of Adam, namely because the grace of Christ can do more in good than the sin of Adam in evil. And concerning this he does two things. First, he compares the causes themselves, namely the grace of Christ to the sin of Adam; second, he sets down their comparison as to their effects, at the place "and not as through one," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth the comparison; second, he makes it clear, at the place "for if by the offense of one," and so on.

He says therefore first: it has been said that Adam is the figure of him who was to come, "but not as the offense," etc., as if he were to say: it is not to be reckoned that the offense of Adam is of as great efficacy as the gift of Christ is of efficacy. The reason for this is this: because sin proceeds from the weakness of the human will, but grace proceeds from the immensity of the divine goodness, which it is manifest is to be preferred to the human will, especially a weak one. And therefore the power of grace exceeds every sin. And for this reason David said: "Have mercy on me, God, according to your great mercy." And for this reason the word of Cain is justly reproved, Genesis 4:13, saying: "My iniquity is greater than that I should deserve pardon."

Then when he says "for if by the offense of one," etc., he makes clear what he had said, namely that the gift of grace exceeds the offense of Adam, saying: "for if by the offense of one," namely Adam, "many died," that is, if from the offense of Adam sin and death passed over into many others, because into all who sinned in him, "much more the grace of God, and the gift," that is, the gratuitous gift of God, so that the word "and" is to be taken as explicative. Or, the grace of God is referred to the remission of sin. Above, in the same place: "justified freely by his grace," and so on. But the gift is referred to the goods added over and above the remission of sins, as Psalm 67:19 says, according to another text, "The Lord gave gifts to men." Much more, I say, this grace and these gifts "abounded unto many," that is, unto many. For the more powerful a thing is, the more it can extend itself to many things. But the sin of Adam extends itself to many, which is proved through death. Hence he says pointedly that by the offense of one, many died. For death is a proof of original sin, as was said above. God said to Adam: "In whatever day you shall eat," and so on. The grace of God, which is stronger, extends itself much more amply to many. Hebrews 2:10: "who brought many sons into glory."

Now it must be noted that he says "abounded," because the grace of God proceeded unto many not only for the blotting out of the sin introduced through Adam, but also for the blotting out of actual sins, and for the obtaining of many other goods. 2 Corinthians 9:8: "And God is able to make all grace abound in you." For as sin from one man abounded unto many from the first suggestion of the devil, so also the grace of God proceeded through one man unto many. Hence he adds pointedly "in grace," that is, through the grace of one man, Jesus Christ. For thus grace is poured out from God unto many, that they may receive it through Christ, in whom the whole fullness of graces is found, according to John 1:16: "of his fullness we have all received, grace for grace."

Now the text is to be read in this way according to the exposition of Augustine, so that what is said, "many," is taken not comparatively but absolutely; and thus he means that the comparison is to be attended to in this respect, that if the offense of the one Adam proceeded unto many, much more the grace of the one Christ unto many. But according to Ambrose the word "many" is taken comparatively, so that the sense is that by the offense — that is, the actual sin — of one, namely Adam, many, not all, died, namely by the death of sin, that is, by imitating the sin of Adam himself through idolatry, as was explained above. Wisdom 13:10 says of idolaters: "But they are unhappy, and their hope is among the dead." And much more the grace of God abounded unto many, namely than in the idolaters who sinned after the likeness of Adam, because through the grace of Christ not only are their sins taken away, but also the sins of those who remained in the faith of the one God. Micah, last chapter: "He will put away our iniquities, and cast forth all our sins."

Then, when he says "and not as," etc., he compares the grace of Christ to the sin of Adam as to their effect, because not only does each of them redound unto many, but also the grace of Christ has a greater effect than the sin of Adam. And concerning this he does three things. First he sets forth what he intends; second he makes clear what he has proposed, at the place "for the judgment," etc.; third he proves it, at the place "for if by the offense of one," and so on.

He says therefore first: it has not only been said that the grace of Christ abounds more unto many than the sin of Adam, but also that it produces a greater effect in them. And this is what he means when he says "and not as through one sin, so also the gift," as if he were to say: not as great an effect follows through the one sin of Adam in the many, as follows in the many through the gift of the grace of Christ. For the effect of a more powerful cause is more powerful. Hence, since it has been said that grace is more powerful than the sin of Adam, it follows that it produces a greater effect.

Then when he says "for the judgment," etc., he makes clear what he had said, saying: "for the judgment," that is, the divine punishment, indeed proceeds from one, namely the sin of the first parent, "unto condemnation," namely of all men, because in him sinning they sinned, according to what was said above, that death passed unto all, in whom all sinned. But the grace of God, which is given through Christ, proceeds from many offenses, that is, not only from that one original offense but also from many actual ones, "unto justification," that is, unto perfect cleansing. 1 Corinthians 6:11: "And such indeed you were once, but you are washed, but you are sanctified, but you are justified."

Then, when he says "for if by the offense of one," etc., he proves what he had said, namely that the grace of Christ proceeds from many offenses unto justification. And first indeed he proves this from the posterior; second from the prior, at the place "for as," and so on. Concerning the first, it must be considered that the Apostle, in the comparison set forth, does not put down things that correspond to each other, that is, things of the same kind. For on the side of sin he puts condemnation, which pertains to punishment, but on the side of grace he puts justification, which does not pertain to reward, but rather to the state of merit. Thus therefore the Apostle intends, through his saying that sin induces condemnation, to show that grace induces justification. And he uses an argument of this kind: as the condemnation of death proceeds from the sin of the first parent, so the reign of life proceeds from the grace of Christ. For these two correspond to each other uniformly; but no one can arrive at the reign of life except through justice; therefore men are justified through the grace of Christ. First therefore he sets down the premises; second he draws the conclusion he intends, at the place "therefore as by one," and so on.

Now he sets forth the first proposition, saying: "for if by the offense of one man death reigned through one man" — because, as was said above in the same place, through one man sin entered, and through sin death — "much more," men, "shall reign in life," namely eternal, "through one, Jesus Christ," who says in John 10:10: "I have come that they may have life, and have it more abundantly," namely by participating in the eternity of life, which abundance indeed is here designated through the word "reign." Hence it is said in Apocalypse 20:4, that they shall reign with Christ a thousand years, that is, for an eternal time. But he designates the minor premise by interposing "those who receive the abundance of grace" of Christ "and of the gift, and of justice," as if he were saying: men cannot arrive at the reign of life unless by receiving this. So that the grace of Christ is referred to the remission of sin, which no merits can precede, and therefore it is attributed entirely to grace; "for if by works, now it is not by grace," as is said below, chapter 11:6. But what is said, "of the gift," is to be referred to the gifts of graces, by which men are advanced in goods. Esther 2:18: "He bestowed gifts according to princely magnificence," and so on. But what is said, "of justice," is to be referred to the rectitude of works. 1 Corinthians 1:30: "who was made unto us justice by God."

Then when he says "therefore as," etc., he draws the conclusion he intends, which contains the same thing as what was premised above, namely that as through the one offense of Adam the divine judgment proceeded unto all men who are born of him according to the flesh unto the condemnation of death, so also through the justice of the one, namely Christ, divine grace proceeded unto all men, unto the justification of life, that is, which leads to life. But this seems to be false. For not all men are justified through Christ, as all men die through Adam. But it must be said that it is to be understood that, as all men who are born carnally from Adam incur condemnation through his sin, so all who are reborn spiritually through Christ obtain the justification of life, because, as is said in John 3:5, "unless a man be born again of water and the Holy Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God," and so on. Although it can be said that the justification of Christ passes into the justification of all men as to sufficiency, although as to efficiency it proceeds only unto the faithful. Hence it is said in 1 Timothy 4:10: "who is the savior of all men, but especially of the faithful."

Now from what is said here, we ought to gather, that as no one dies except through the sin of Adam, so no one is justified except through the justice of Christ, which indeed is through faith in him, according to what was said above, 3:22: "the justice of God through faith in Jesus Christ, unto all who believe in him." Now men believed in him, not only those who are after his incarnation, but also those who preceded his incarnation. For as we believe him to have been born and to have suffered, so they believed he was to be born and to suffer. Hence our faith and theirs is the same. 2 Corinthians 4:13: "having the same spirit of faith," and so on. Thus therefore it has been proved that the grace of Christ proceeds unto the justification of many from the posterior, namely from the reign of life.

Consequently, when he says "for as," etc., he proves the same thing from the prior. For causes are similar to their effects. But the disobedience of the first parent, which has the character of injustice, constitutes sinners and unjust men. Therefore the obedience of Christ, which has the character of justice, constitutes just men. And this is what was said above, that grace proceeds unto all men unto justification.

But what is said seems to be doubtful, that through the disobedience of one man many were constituted sinners, that is, all who are born from him according to the seminal principle. For his first sin seems to have been pride, rather than disobedience, according to Ecclesiasticus 10:15: "the beginning of all sin is pride." But it must be said that, as it is likewise said there, "the beginning of pride makes men fall away from God," because indeed the first part of pride consists in this, that man does not wish to be subject to the divine precepts, which pertains to disobedience. Hence the first sin of man seems to have been disobedience, not according to the exterior act, but according to the interior motion of pride, by which he willed to go against the divine precept. Hence the Lord reproves his disobedience, Genesis 3:17: "because you have heeded the voice of your wife, and have eaten of the tree of which I commanded you that you should not eat," and so on.

But the obedience of Christ is here spoken of according to which, obeying the precept of the Father, he sustained death for our salvation, according to Philippians 2:8: "he became obedient unto death," and so on. Nor is it contrary to what is said elsewhere, that Christ died out of charity, as is clear from Ephesians 5:2; because this very fact that he obeyed proceeded from the love which he had for the Father and for us.

And it is to be noted that through obedience and disobedience he proves that we are made sinners through one, and are justified through one: because legal justice, which is every virtue, is considered in the observance of the precepts of the law, which pertains to the character of obedience. But legal injustice, which is every wickedness, as is said in Ethics Book 5, is considered in the transgression of the commandments of the law, which pertains to the character of disobedience. Thus, therefore, it is fittingly said that through obedience men are constituted just, and through disobedience, sinners.

After the Apostle has shown that through the gift of grace sin is taken away, which had entered into this world through Adam, here he shows that through the grace of Christ sin is removed, which had abounded when the law supervened. Concerning this he does two things. First, he sets forth the abundance of sin, which was through the law; second, the absolution of sin, which is through the grace of Christ, at the place "where sin abounded," and so on.

He says therefore first: it has been said that through the obedience of one man many are made just, but the law was not able to do this; rather, the law entered in besides, that sin might abound the more. Concerning this saying of the Apostle, a twofold difficulty arises. First indeed concerning his saying that the law entered in besides — that is, entered secretly after original and actual guilt, or after the natural law, as the Gloss says. For the law did not enter secretly but was given openly, according to John 18:20: "I have not spoken in secret." It must be said therefore that although the legislation itself was given openly, yet the mysteries of the law were hidden, and especially as to God's intention in giving the law — that it should show sin, not heal it — according to what follows below at Romans 11:34: "Who has known the mind of the Lord," and so on. It can also be said that the law entered in besides, that is, entered as it were in the middle, between the sin of man and the gift of the grace of Christ, both of which he had said above passed from one to many.

The second difficulty, however, concerns his saying that the law entered in besides that sin might abound. For thus it seems that the abundance of sin is the end of the law, and so it follows that the law is evil, since that whose end is evil is itself also evil; and this is against 1 Timothy 1:8: "We know indeed that the law is good," and so on. To this, however, the Gloss responds in three ways.

First indeed, that we should say that the word "that" is not placed causally, but consecutively. For the law was not given for this purpose, that sin might abound; rather the law, as far as it was in itself, forbade sin, according to Psalm 118:11: "In my heart I have hidden your words, that I may not sin against you." But, the law having been given, an abundance of sins followed in two ways.

In one way, as to the multitude of sins. For although the law pointed out sin, it did not take away the concupiscence of sin. But when that which someone desires is forbidden to him, he burns the more vehemently with desire for it, just as a river, when an obstacle is placed against it, flows the more strongly and breaks the obstacle. Of which the reason can be threefold. One indeed, because that which lies within a man's power, no one reckons as great, but that which is outside a man's power is apprehended by man as though it were great. But the prohibition of what is desired places that which is forbidden as it were outside a man's power, and therefore desire burns the more toward the desired thing while it is forbidden. The second reason is that interior affections, when they are retained within, so that they are not led outward, are for this very reason more inflamed within; as is clear in sorrow and anger, which, while they are kept shut up within, are increased the more; but if they proceed outward in any way, their force is diminished. But prohibition, on account of fear of punishment, compels a man not to bring his desire out into external acts, and therefore that very desire, retained within, is the more inflamed. The third reason is that what is not forbidden to us we apprehend as something that can be done whenever it pleases us, and therefore many times, when the opportunity exists, we avoid it; but when something is forbidden, it is apprehended by us as something that cannot always be had by us, and therefore when an opportunity is given of obtaining it without fear of punishment, we are the more eager for it. And hence it is that, the law having been given, which forbade the use of concupiscence and yet did not mitigate the concupiscence itself, that very concupiscence led men to sins more fervently. Hence it is said in Ezekiel 5:5f.: "This is Jerusalem; I have set her in the midst of the nations, and the countries round about her; and she has despised my judgments, so as to be more wicked than the nations."

But according to this it seems that every human law, which does not confer grace diminishing concupiscence, makes sins abound — which is contrary to the intentions of lawgivers, since they aim at this, that they may make citizens good, as is clear from the Philosopher, in Ethics II. But it must be said that the intention of human law is one thing, and that of divine law another. For human law is referred to human judgment, which concerns exterior acts; but divine law is referred to divine judgment, which concerns the interior movements of the heart, according to 1 Kings 16:7: "Man sees the things that appear, but God looks upon the heart." Thus, then, human law attains its intention, in that through prohibition and the threat of punishment it prevents the exterior acts of sin from being multiplied, although the interior concupiscence is increased the more; but as regards divine law, even the interior evil desires are imputed as sin, and these abound when the law forbids but does not take away concupiscence.

It must be known, however, that, as the Philosopher says in Ethics X, the prohibition of law, although it restrains those who are badly disposed from exterior sins by fear of punishment alone, yet it induces certain well-disposed persons through love of virtue. But this good disposition, as to a certain extent, can be from nature, but its perfection is only through grace; from which it happens that, even with the old law given, sin does not abound in all, but in the majority. Some indeed, with the law forbidding and grace further assisting, at length arrived at the perfection of the virtues, according to Ecclesiasticus 44:1: "Let us praise glorious men," etc., and further on: "men great in virtue."

Secondly, sin abounded the more with the law supervening, as to the gravity of the guilt. For sin was more grave where transgression was added, not only of the law of nature, but also of the written law. Hence it was said above at Romans 4:15 that "where there is no law, neither is there transgression."

Secondly, however, it can be answered, as it is said, that the word "that" be taken causally, yet in such a way that the Apostle is speaking of the abundance of sin according as it is in our knowledge, so that the sense is: the law entered in besides that sin might abound, that is, that sin might be more abundantly known, according to the manner of speaking whereby a thing is said to come to be when it becomes known. Hence it was said above, that "through the law comes the knowledge of sin."

In a third way it can be explained such that the word "that" be taken causally, yet in such a way that the abundance of sin is not understood as the end of the law entering in besides, but rather that which follows from the abundance of sin, namely the humbling of man. For with the law entering in besides, sin abounded, as was said in the first exposition. From this abundance of sin, indeed, it followed that man, recognizing his own weakness, should be humbled. For proud man used to say, presuming on his own strength: there is no lack of one to fulfill, but a lack of one to command, according to Exodus 24:7: "All things that the Lord has spoken, we will do, and we will be obedient." But when, the law having been given, a multitude of sins followed, man came to know his own weakness for keeping the law, according to Wisdom 9:5: "A weak man, and of short time," and so on. The intention, therefore, of God giving the law does not terminate at the abundance of sins, but at the humility of man, for the sake of which he permitted sins to abound. Thus, then, because this was hidden, he says pointedly, with regard to this, that the law entered in besides.

But because here the matter treated is the law and the end of the law, two things occur to be considered. First indeed, in how many ways law is said; second, what the end of the law is.

Concerning the first, it must be known that law, in one way, is said of the whole Scripture of the Old Testament, according to John 15:25: "that the word might be fulfilled which is written in their law: They have hated me without cause," although this is written in the Psalm. Sometimes, however, law is said of the Scripture of the five books of Moses, according to Deuteronomy 33:4: "Moses commanded us a law." Thirdly, the Decalogue of precepts is called law, according to Exodus 24:12: "I will give you two tables of stone, and the law and the commandments which I have written, that you may teach." Fourthly, the whole content of the ceremonial precepts is called law, according to Hebrews 10:1: "The law, having a shadow of the good things to come." Fifthly, some special ceremonial precept is called law, according to Leviticus 7:11: "This is the law of the sacrifice of peace offerings." Here, however, law is taken by the Apostle commonly, as regards the whole teaching of the law of Moses, that is, as regards the moral and ceremonial precepts, because, namely, through the ceremonies of the law grace was not given, by which man might be helped to fulfill the moral precepts with concupiscence diminished.

Concerning the end of the law, however, it must be known that among the people of the Jews there were three kinds of men, as also in any other people, namely the hard, that is, sinners and rebels, those making progress, and the perfect. As regards the hard, then, the law was given as a scourge — both as to the moral precepts, to the observance of which they were compelled by the threat of punishment, as is clear in Leviticus 2, and as to the ceremonial precepts, which were multiplied for this reason, lest it be permitted to them to add another worship to strange gods. Exodus 20:34: "With a mighty hand and an outstretched arm, and with fury poured out, I will reign over you." But for those making progress, who are called the middling ones, the law was a tutor, according to Galatians 3:24: "the law was our tutor in Christ." And this both as to the ceremonial precepts, by which they were held to divine worship, and as to the moral precepts, by which they were advanced toward justice. For the perfect, however, it was, as to the ceremonial precepts indeed, a sign, according to Ezekiel 20:12: "I gave them my sabbaths, that they might be a sign between me," and so on. But as to the moral precepts, it was a comfort, according to what follows below at Romans 7:22: "I delight in the law of God according to the inward man."

Then, when he says "where sin abounded," etc., he shows how, through grace, the abundance of sins is taken away. And first he sets forth the abundance of grace; second he shows the effect of abounding grace, at the place "that as sin has reigned," and so on.

He says therefore first: it has been said that, with the law entering in besides, sin abounded; nor is the divine purpose concerning the salvation of the Jews and of the whole human race impeded on this account, because where sin abounded — namely in the human race, and especially among the Jews — grace also abounded the more, namely the grace of Christ forgiving sins. 2 Corinthians 9:8: "God is able to make all grace abound in you." Of what is said here, a twofold reason can be assigned. One indeed from the effect of grace. For just as only a strong and efficacious medicine heals the greatness of a disease, so an abounding grace was required in order to heal the abundance of sins. Luke 7:47: "Many sins are forgiven her, because she has loved much," and so on. Another reason can be taken from the disposition of the sinner, who, while he recognizes the greatness of his sins, sometimes indeed despairs and grows contemptuous, according to Proverbs 18:3: "The wicked man, when he has come into the depth of sins, grows contemptuous," etc.; but sometimes, through divine help, from the consideration of his sins he is the more humbled, and obtains a greater grace, according to Psalm 15:4: "Their infirmities were multiplied: afterward they made haste."

Then, when he says "that as sin has reigned unto death," etc., he shows the effect of abounding grace, which indeed corresponds by opposition to the effect of sin. "That," namely, as sin, introduced through the first man and abounding through the law, "has reigned," that is, obtained full dominion over men, and this even to the point of leading them into temporal and eternal death — below, Romans 6:23: "the wages of sin is death" — "so also the grace of God might reign," that is, might fully have dominion in us, "through justice," namely which it works in us; above, in the same chapter: "justified freely through his grace." And this even to the point of leading us into eternal life, according to what follows below at Romans 6:23: "the grace of God, life everlasting." And all this is "through Jesus Christ our Lord," who is the giver of grace, according to John 1:17: "Grace and truth came through Jesus Christ," and also of justice, 1 Corinthians 1:30: "who was made unto us justice from God," and the giver of eternal life, John 10:28: "I give them life everlasting."