Commentary on Ephesians (Super Epistolam ad Ephesios Lectura)

"I have confirmed its pillars." Psalm 74:4.

As the wise man says: it is no less a virtue to guard what has been gained than to seek it; therefore the Apostle is not undeservedly commended, because although he did not found the Ephesians in the faith, he nevertheless confirmed them, already founded, in the faith, so that he himself, speaking of the Church of the Ephesians, could truly say: I have confirmed its pillars; I, namely, an Israelite by nation, a Christian by religion, an apostle by dignity.

I say an Israelite by nation; for I too am an Israelite, of the seed of Abraham, of the tribe of Benjamin. 2 Corinthians 11:22.

Likewise a Christian by religion. Galatians 2:19f.: "For I through the law am dead to the law, that I may live to God: I am crucified with Christ: I live, now not I, but Christ lives in me: and that I now live in the flesh, I live in the faith of the Son of God."

Likewise an apostle by dignity. 1 Corinthians 15:9: "I am the least of the apostles."

Concerning these three, 2 Corinthians 11:22: "Are they Israelites? So am I. Are they the seed of Abraham? So am I. Are they ministers of Christ? So am I. I speak as one less wise, I am more."

Such ought the preacher of saving wisdom to be: namely, an Israelite as regards the contemplation of God, a Christian as regards the religion of the faith, an apostle as regards the authority of office.

I, therefore — a Jew by origin, seeking God through faith, an apostle of God through imitation — have confirmed, etc. I have confirmed, lest they waver from the faith, just as a builder strengthens a building, lest it fall. Hence it was said to Peter, Luke 22:32: "And you, once converted, confirm your brethren," which Paul did. Hence that saying of Job 4:4 applies to him: "Your words have confirmed those who wavered."

He also confirmed them lest they fear false apostles, just as a bishop confirms a child for strength against faint-heartedness, whence it was said of David in Psalm 88:21: "I have found David my servant; with my holy oil I have anointed him: for my hand shall help him, and my arm shall strengthen him; the enemy shall have no advantage over him," etc. Psalm 32:6: "By the word of the Lord" — written through Paul — "the heavens," that is, the Ephesians, "were established," etc., namely lest they lose the reward of glory, just as a prelate or a prince confirms a gift, lest it be taken away afterward. Psalm 40:13: "But you have upheld me because of my innocence, and have confirmed me in your sight forever."

These confirmations he sought, Psalm 67:29, saying: "Confirm this, O God, which you have worked in us," etc. These the Apostle promised, 2 Thessalonians, last chapter: "But God is faithful, who will confirm you, and keep you from evil."

I, therefore, have confirmed its pillars, namely the faithful of the Church of the Ephesians. For the faithful of the Church are called pillars, because they ought to be upright, erect, and strong. Upright through faith, erect through hope, strong through charity.

I say upright through faith, for faith shows the right way of coming to the homeland; hence it is signified by the pillar of cloud, concerning which Exodus 13:21: "And the Lord went before them to show the way by day in a pillar of a cloud." For faith, after the manner of a cloud, has obscurity, because it is with an enigma; dissolution, because it is emptied out; moisture, because it stirs up to devotion.

Erect through hope, for hope directs toward the things above; hence it is signified by the pillar of smoke, of which it is said, Judges 20:40: "They saw as it were a pillar of smoke rising up from the city." For hope, after the manner of smoke, arises from fire, that is, from charity; it ascends on high; it fails at the end, that is, in glory.

Strong through charity, for love is strong as death, as it is said, Song of Songs 8:6; hence it is signified by the pillar of fire which consumes all things, concerning which Wisdom 18:3: "They had for a guide of their unknown way a burning pillar of fire." For just as fire illuminates transparent things, tests metals, and destroys combustible things, so charity illuminates works, tests intention, and destroys all vices.

Now it is apparent what is the efficient cause of this epistle: namely Paul, which is noted there at "I." The final cause: namely confirmation, which is noted there at "I have confirmed." The material cause: namely the Ephesians, which is noted there at "its pillars." The formal cause is evident in the division of the epistle, and in the manner of proceeding.

To this epistle the Glossator prefixes a prologue, or argument, wherein he principally does two things: first he describes them; second, he appends the reason and manner of writing, there at "the Apostle commends these," etc.

The Ephesians, indeed, to whom he writes, he describes by three things. First, from their region, because the Ephesians are Asians, from Asia Minor; second, from their religion, because these received the word of Christian truth; third, from their stability, because they persevered in the faith. The first regards their homeland; the second, grace; the third, perseverance. "The Apostle commends these," etc.

Here he also appends the reason and manner of writing, wherein he implies four things. First, the reason for the writing; second, the author, who is the Apostle writing; third, the place from which he writes, because from Rome, from prison; fourth, the messenger through whom he writes, because through Tychicus the deacon. The text is sufficiently clear.

The apostle writes this epistle to the Ephesians. The Ephesians are Asians, from Asia Minor, which is a part of Greece. These were not founded in the faith by the apostle Paul, but confirmed in it. For already, before he came to them, they had been converted, as can be gathered from Acts 19:1: "it came to pass, while Apollo was at Corinth," etc. But after their conversion and the apostle's confirmation, they persevered in the faith, and did not receive false apostles. Therefore they were worthy not of reproof, but of consolation. Hence Paul writes to them not a reproachful, but a consoling, epistle. Now he writes to them from the city of Rome, through Tychicus the deacon. His intention is to confirm them in the goods they already have, and to call them on to higher things.

The manner of proceeding is evident in the division of the epistle. First, then, he sets down the salutation, in which he shows his affection toward them; second, the narration, in which he confirms them in the goods they have, at "Blessed be God," etc., up to chapter 4; third, the exhortation, in which he calls them on to further goods, from chapter 4 up to that passage in chapter 6, "For the rest, brethren, be strengthened in the Lord," etc.; fourth, the conclusion of the epistle, in which he strengthens them for the spiritual struggle, from that passage "for the rest" to the end.

In the salutation, first is set down the person who greets; second, the persons greeted, at "to all the saints," etc.; third, the form of the salutation, at "grace to you," etc. In the first, he first names the person, at "Paul"; second, the authority of the person, at "apostle of Christ"; third, the giver of that authority, at "through the will of God."

He says therefore: "Paul, apostle." "Paul" is a name of humility, but "apostle" is a name of dignity, because "he who humbles himself shall be exalted," Luke 14:11 and 18:14. "Apostle," I say, "of Jesus," not of Satan, as are the false apostles. V. 11: "It is therefore no great thing if his ministers," namely Satan's, "are transfigured as ministers of righteousness," etc. "Apostle," I say, and this not by my own merits, but "through the will of God." The contrary is the case in many. Hosea 8:4: "They have reigned, and not by me," etc.

"To all the saints," namely who are at Ephesus, "and to the faithful" — supply "he writes." Or: I, Paul, write to the saints by reason of the exercise of the virtues, as pertains to conduct; to the faithful, by reason of rectitude of knowledge, as pertains to faith. Or: "to the saints," that is, to the greater and the perfect; "to the faithful," that is, to the lesser and the imperfect. And "to the faithful," I say, "in Christ," not in their own deeds.

"Grace to you and peace," etc. Here is added the form of the salutation, in which three things are implied, each of which makes a gift gracious: the sufficiency of the gift, at "grace to you and peace"; the power of the giver, at "from God the Father"; the excellence of the mediator, at "and the Lord Jesus Christ." For a gift is then pleasing: when what is given is sufficient; when it is given by one who is powerful, as when it is given by a king or a prince; when it is given through a solemn messenger, as through a son.

He says therefore: "grace," namely of justification from guilt, "and peace," that is, tranquility of mind, or reconciliation to God, as regards liberation from the punishment owed for offense. "To you" — supply "be" — from this source, namely "from God our Father," from whom all good things proceed. James 1:17: "Every best gift," etc. "And the Lord Jesus Christ," without whom no goods are given; therefore almost all prayers are concluded: "through our Lord Jesus Christ." He does not name the Holy Spirit, because, since the Spirit is the bond of the Father and the Son, he is understood as included in the extremes; or he is understood in the gifts appropriated to him, which are grace and peace.

Then, when he says "Blessed be God," etc., here, by giving thanks, he confirms them in good, and this in three ways. First, by an argument taken from the side of Christ, from whom they have obtained many goods — in this chapter; second, by an argument taken from their own side, who were transferred from a past evil state to a present good — chapter 2, at "and you, when you were dead," etc.; third, by an argument taken from the side of the apostle, by whose ministry and diligence, having been placed in a good state, they were confirmed — chapter 3, at "for this cause," etc. Again, the first of these is divided into three: first, by giving thanks, he touches on the benefits in general; second, the benefits shown specially to the apostles themselves, at "which he made to abound in us," etc.; third, the benefits shown specially to the Ephesians themselves, at "in whom you also, when you had heard," etc.

Now the benefits shown generally to the human race he touches on, six in number. The first, of blessing, in the certainty of future beatitude, at "blessed," etc. The second, of election, in the pre-ordained separation from the mass of perdition, at "as he chose us in him," etc. The third, of predestination, in the pre-ordained association with the good, namely with the sons of adoption, at "who predestined us," etc. The fourth, of gracing, in the conferring of grace, at "in whom he has graced us," etc. The fifth, of redemption, in liberation from punishment, that is, from the servitude of the Devil, at "in whom we have redemption," etc. The sixth, of remission, in the blotting out of guilt, at "the remission of sins," etc.

Concerning the benefit of blessing, he touches on two things: first, the proclamation of praise which ought to be rendered, at "Blessed be God," etc.; second, the benefit on account of which it ought to be rendered, at "who has blessed us," etc. He says therefore "blessed" — namely by me, by you, and by others, that is, in heart, and mouth, and deed, in other words, "praised" — "God and Father," that is, he who is God through the essence of divinity, and Father on account of the property of generation. Now the conjunction "and" occurs here not by reason of the supposit, since the supposit is the same, but by reason of signification, essentially and relatively. "Father," I say, "of our Lord Jesus Christ," that is, of the Son, who is "our Lord" according to divinity, "Jesus Christ" according to humanity.

"Who," namely God, "has blessed us" in hope in the present, but in the future he will bless in reality. He puts the past tense in place of the future on account of certainty. "He has blessed," I say, "us," although accursed by our own merits, "with every spiritual blessing," namely as regards the soul, and as regards the body — for then the body will be spiritual. 1 Corinthians 15:44: "it is sown a natural body, it shall rise a spiritual body." "Blessing," I say, possessed, "in the heavenly places," that is, in heaven; and this, "in Christ," that is, through Christ, or in Christ working. For he it is "who will reform the body of our lowliness," etc., Philippians 3:21.

This blessing is greatly to be desired: by reason of the efficient cause, because God is this blessing; by reason of the matter, because he has blessed us; by reason of the form, because he blesses with every spiritual blessing; and by reason of the end, because he blesses in the heavenly places. Psalm 127:4: "Behold, thus shall the man be blessed who fears the Lord."

Then, when he says "as he chose us," etc., the benefit of election is touched upon, where this election is commended: because it is free, at "as he chose us in him"; because it is eternal, at "before the foundation of the world"; because it is fruitful, at "that we should be," etc.; because it is gratuitous, at "in charity." He says therefore: thus he will bless us, not by our merits, but by the grace of Christ, "as he chose us," and freely, separating us from the mass of perdition, he pre-ordained us "in him," that is, through Christ. John 15:16: "You have not chosen me, but I have chosen you," etc. And this "before the foundation of the world," that is, from eternity, before we came to be. Romans 9:11: "when they were not yet born," etc.

"He chose," I say, not because we were holy — since we were not — but he chose us to this end, "that we should be holy," by virtues, "and immaculate," free of vices; for election accomplishes both, according to the two parts of justice. Psalm 33:15: "Turn away from evil, and do good." "Holy," I say, "in his sight," that is, inwardly in the heart, where he alone beholds. 1 Kings 16:7: "But God looks upon the heart." Or "in his sight," that is, so that we may behold him, since the vision is the whole reward, according to Augustine. And he did this, not by our merits, but "in his charity" — or ours — by which he formally sanctifies us.

Then, when he says "who predestined," etc., he adds the third benefit, namely of predestination, in the pre-ordained association with the good. Here, concerning predestination, he implies six things: first, the eternal act, at "predestined"; second, the temporal object, at "us"; third, the present benefit, at "unto the adoption," etc.; fourth, the future fruit, at "unto the same"; fifth, the gratuitous manner, at "according to the purpose"; sixth, the owed effect, at "unto the praise of the glory," etc.

He says therefore: "who," namely God, "predestined us," that is, by grace alone he chose beforehand, "unto the adoption of sons," that is, that we should be associated with the other sons of adoption in the goods which they are to have; therefore he says "unto the adoption of sons." Romans 8:15: "For you have not received the spirit of bondage again in fear, but you have received the spirit of the adoption of sons"; and below: "awaiting the adoption of sons." But because that which is to become fiery must become so through fire — since nothing attains participation in something except through that which is such of its own nature — therefore the adoption of sons must come about through the natural Son. And therefore the apostle adds "through Jesus Christ." And this is the third thing touched upon in this benefit, namely the alluring mediator. Galatians 4:4-5: "God sent his Son, made of a woman, made under the law, that he might redeem those who were under the law; that we might receive the adoption of sons."

And this "unto himself," that is, insofar as we are conformed to him, and serve in the spirit. 1 John 3:1: "Behold what manner of charity God has given us, that we should be called, and should be, the sons of God." And there follows in the same place: "and we know that when he shall appear, we shall be like to him." Here it must be noted that the likeness of the predestined to the Son of God is twofold: one imperfect, which is through grace. And it is called imperfect, first, because it is only according to the reformation of the soul, concerning which Colossians 3: "be reformed in the spirit of your mind, and put on the new man," etc.; second, because even according to the soul it has a certain imperfection, for "we know in part," as it is said in 1 Corinthians 13:9. The other likeness, however, will be perfect, and it will be in glory: as regards the body, Philippians 3:21: "he will reform the body of our lowliness, configured," etc.; and as regards the soul, because "when that which is perfect has come, that which is in part shall be done away," 1 Corinthians 13:10.

What the apostle says, then — that he predestined us unto the adoption of sons — can be referred to the imperfect assimilation to the Son of God, which is had in this life through grace; but it is better that it be referred to the perfect assimilation to the Son of God, which will be in our homeland, concerning which adoption it is said, Romans 8:23: "we groan, awaiting the adoption of the sons of God."

The cause of divine predestination is not necessity on the part of God, nor a debt on the part of the predestined, but rather it is "according to the purpose of his will." In this, fourthly, the benefit is commended, because it proceeds from pure love, since predestination, according to reason, presupposes election, and election presupposes love. Nevertheless, a twofold cause of this immense benefit is here assigned. One is the efficient cause, which is the simple will of God, at "according to the purpose of his will." Romans 9:18: "he has mercy on whom he will, and whom he will he hardens." James 1:18: "For of his own will he begot us by the word of truth." The other cause, however, is the final cause, which is that we should praise and know the goodness of God — which is noted at "unto the praise of the glory of his grace." And this again is that from which this excellent benefit is commended, namely the fitting service owed to it. For the cause of divine predestination is the pure will of God, but its end is the knowledge of his goodness.

Whence it must be noted that the will of God in no way has a cause, but is the first cause of all things. Nevertheless, some reason can be assigned to it in two ways: namely, either on the part of the one willing — and thus a certain reason of the divine will is his own goodness, which is the object of the divine will, and moves it. Whence the reason of all the things that God wills is the divine goodness. Proverbs 16:4: "God has made all things for himself." But on the part of the thing willed, the reason of the divine will can be some created being, as when he wills to crown Peter because he has striven lawfully; but this is not the cause of his willing, but is the cause that it should so come about.

It must be known, however, that effects are the reason of the divine will on the part of the thing willed, in such a way, namely, that a prior effect is the reason of a further one; yet nevertheless, when one comes to the first effect, no further reason of that effect can be assigned except the divine will. For instance: God wills man to have a hand, that it may serve reason; and man to have reason, because he willed him to be a man; and he willed him to be a man on account of the perfection of the universe. And because this is the first effect in the creature, no reason of the universe can be assigned on the part of the creature, but only on the part of the Creator, which is the divine will. Therefore, according to this manner, neither can any reason of predestination be assigned on the part of the creature, but only on the part of God.

For the effects of predestination are two, namely grace and glory. Now of the effects that are ordered to glory, a reason can indeed be assigned on the part of the thing willed, namely grace: for instance, he crowned Peter because he strove lawfully, and this because he was confirmed in grace. But of grace, which is the first effect, no reason can be assigned on the part of man that would be the reason of predestination; for this would be to posit that the beginning of a good work is in man of himself and not through grace — which is the Pelagian heresy, which says that the beginning of a good work is on our part. Thus, therefore, it is evident that the reason of predestination is the simple will of God; on account of which the apostle says "according to the purpose of his will."

But as to how it is to be understood that God does and wills all things on account of his own goodness, it must be known that to work certain things for an end can be understood in two ways: either on account of attaining the end, as a sick man takes medicine for the sake of health; or on account of the love of diffusing the end, as a physician works in order to communicate health to another. Now God needs no good exterior to himself, according to that word of Psalm 15:2: "you have no need of my goods." And therefore, when it is said that God wills and does all things on account of his own goodness, it is not understood that he does something in order for goodness to be communicated to himself, but in order for goodness to be diffused into others.

Now the divine goodness is communicated to the rational creature properly, so that the rational creature itself may know it. And thus all the things that God does in rational creatures, he creates unto his own praise and glory, according to that word of Isaiah 43:7: "every one that calls upon my name, I have created him for my glory" — namely, that he may know his goodness, and, in knowing it, may praise it. And therefore the apostle adds "unto the praise of the glory of his grace," that is, that he may know how much God is to be praised and glorified.

He does not, however, say "unto the praise of justice"; for justice has place there where a debt is found, or is also repaid; but that one is predestined to eternal life is not a debt, as has been said, but grace purely and freely given. Nor does he say only "of glory," but he adds "of grace," as it were "of glorious grace" — that is, a grace in which the magnitude of grace is shown, which consists also in the magnitude of the glory, and in the manner of its giving, since he gives it with no preceding merits, but while we still exist as undeserving. Whence Romans 5:8ff.: "But God commends his charity in us, because if, while we were yet sinners, according to the appointed time, Christ died for us," etc., and shortly after, "when we were enemies, we were reconciled to God."

It is evident, therefore, that of divine predestination there is no other cause, nor can there be, than the simple will of God. Whence it is also evident that of the predestining divine will there is no other reason than the divine goodness that is to be communicated to his sons.

Here the Apostle sets down the fourth benefit, namely that of being made gracious through the conferral of grace. Concerning this he does two things. First he touches on the conferral of this benefit; second he shows the manner and condition of the conferring, at the words "in whom we have redemption," etc. He says therefore first: I say that we have been predestined unto the adoption of sons, unto the praise of the glory of his grace, and I say the grace, in which he has made us gracious, etc. Concerning this it must be known that it is the same thing for something to be pleasing to someone and to be loved by him. For that is pleasing to me which I love. Since, then, God has loved us from eternity — for he chose us before the foundation of the world in charity, as has been said — how then did he make us gracious in time? And it must be said that those whom he loved in himself from eternity, he makes gracious in time insofar as they exist in their own natures; and indeed that which is from eternity was not made, whereas that which is in time is said to come to be. Hence here the Apostle says "he has made us gracious," that is, he has made us pleasing, so that we might be worthy of his love. 1 John 3: "Behold what manner of charity the Father has given us, that we should be called, and should be, the sons of God." Now it is customary to distinguish a twofold grace: namely, grace freely given, which is given without merits — Romans 11: "But if by grace, now it is not of works, otherwise grace is no more grace" — and grace which makes gracious, which makes us pleasing and acceptable to God, and it is of this that it is spoken here. It must be noted, moreover, that some are loved on account of another, and some on account of themselves. For when I love someone greatly, I love him, and whatever pertains to him; but we are loved by God, not on account of ourselves, but in him who is loved by the Father through himself. And therefore the Apostle adds "in the beloved Son," for whose sake, namely, he loves us, insofar as we are like him. For love is founded upon likeness. Hence it is said, Ecclesiasticus 13:19: "every animal loves its like." Now the Son, by his own nature, is like the Father, and therefore is loved principally and through himself, and therefore is loved by the Father naturally and in the most excellent way. We, however, are sons by adoption, insofar, that is, as we are conformed to his Son, and therefore we have a certain participation of the divine love. John 13:35: "the Father loves the Son, and has given all things into his hand; he who believes in the Son has eternal life." Colossians 1:13: "he has translated us into the kingdom of the Son of his love."

Then, when he says "in whom we have redemption," etc., he sets down the manner of it. Concerning this he does two things. For first he proposes the manner on the part of Christ; second on the part of God, at the words "according to the riches of his grace," etc. On the part of Christ he sets down a twofold manner, for Christ made us gracious by two things. For there are two things in us which are opposed to the divine making-gracious, namely the stain of sin and the harm of punishment. And just as death is opposed to life, so sin is opposed to justice, so that by this, being removed far from the likeness of God, we would not be pleasing to God. But through Christ he has made us gracious. First indeed by the removal of punishment, and as to this he says that in Christ we have redemption, namely from the servitude of sin. 1 Peter 1:18: "you were not redeemed with corruptible things, gold or silver, from your vain manner of living handed down from your fathers, but with precious blood," etc. Apocalypse 5:9: "you have redeemed us to God in your blood." Second, we are said to be redeemed because, from the servitude in which we were held on account of sin, and which we could not fully satisfy for by ourselves, we have been freed through Christ, because by dying for us he satisfied God the Father, and thus the harm of guilt has been abolished. Hence he says "unto the remission of sins." John 1:29: "behold the Lamb of God, behold him who takes away the sins of the world." Luke, last chapter, 46: "it behooved Christ to suffer, and to rise again from the dead the third day, and that penance and remission of sins should be preached in his name."

Now the manner on the part of God is set down when he says "according to the riches," etc., as if he were to say that God, in making us gracious, not only remitted the fault to us, but gave his own Son, who satisfied for us. And this was out of superabundant grace, by which he willed, through this, to preserve the honor of human nature, in that, as it were through justice, he willed to free men from the servitude of sin and death through the death of his own Son. And therefore he says "according to the riches of his grace," as if he were to say: this, that we have been redeemed and made gracious through the satisfaction of his Son, was out of abundant grace and mercy, inasmuch as mercy and compassion are bestowed upon the undeserving.

Now these things which have been said we have pursued according to the exposition of the Gloss, which exposition indeed seems forced, because the same thing is contained in the one as in the other. For it is the same thing to say "he chose us" and "he predestined us." And the same thing is said by what he says "that we should be holy and immaculate" as by what he says "unto the adoption of sons." On account of which it must be known that it is the custom of the Apostle that, when he speaks on some difficult matter, the things which immediately follow are an exposition of what was said before, and there is not there a mere repetition of words, but an exposition, and the Apostle keeps to this manner here. Hence, keeping the same weight of words, let us divide differently from the beginning, and let us say that this part, "blessed be God," etc., is divided first into three parts, because the Apostle first renders an act of thanksgiving, at "blessed be God," etc.; second he recounts the bestowal of all the benefits together, at "who has blessed us in every spiritual blessing," etc.; third he sets down an open expression of the divine benefits in particular, at "as he chose," etc. And this is divided into two parts, because first he expresses the benefits distinctly; second he expounds them, at "who has predestined us," etc. Now he sets forth the benefits: first as to election; second as to the things which follow, at "that we should be holy," etc. Now he expounds first concerning election. For there is a twofold election, namely of present righteousness, and of eternal predestination. Of the first, John 6:71: "did I not choose you twelve, and one of you is a devil?" And the Apostle does not intend this one here, because that election was not before the foundation of the world, and therefore he immediately makes clear which one he means, namely the second, that is, eternal predestination; on account of which he says "he has predestined us," etc. And because he says "in Christ," namely that we should be like and conformed to Christ, according as we are adopted into sons, therefore he adds "unto the adoption of sons through Jesus Christ." Now this, that he says "in charity," he expounds when he says "in whom we have redemption through his blood," as if he were to say: we have, etc. And this, that he says "and immaculate," he expounds when he says "unto the remission of sins." And this, that he says "in his sight," he expounds, saying, "unto the praise of the glory of his grace."

Having set forth the benefits conferred commonly on all, here the Apostle sets forth the benefits conferred specially on the apostles. Now this part is divided into two, because first he sets forth the benefits conferred singularly on the apostles; second he shows their cause, at the place in whom we also were called by lot, etc. Concerning the first he does three things: first he sets forth the singular benefits of the apostles as to the excellence of wisdom; second, as to the special revelation of the hidden mystery, at the place that he might make known, etc.; third he explains what that mystery is, at the place according to the good pleasure, etc.

He says therefore first: I say that according to the riches of his grace all the faithful in common, both you and we, have redemption and remission of sins through the blood of Christ; and this grace indeed abounded exceedingly in us, that is, it was more abundant than in others. From which it appears the rashness of those — not to say error — who presume to compare certain saints to the apostles in grace and glory. For it is manifestly clear from these words that the apostles have a greater grace than any other saints, after Christ and the Virgin Mother.

But if it should be said that other saints could merit as much as the apostles merited, and consequently have as much grace, it must be said that this would be well argued if grace were given for merits; but if that were so, it would no longer be grace, as it is said in Romans 11:6. And therefore, just as God preordained certain saints to greater dignity, so also he poured into them a more abundant grace — just as he conferred a singular grace upon Christ as man, whom he assumed to unity of person; and upon the glorious Virgin Mary, whom he chose as mother and filled with grace both as to soul and as to body — so also he called the apostles to a singular dignity, and thus endowed them with the privilege of a singular grace; on account of which the Apostle says in Romans 8:23: we ourselves having the firstfruits of the spirit. The Gloss: earlier in time, and more abundant than the rest. It is rash, therefore, to compare any saint to the apostles.

The grace of God, therefore, abounded exceedingly in the apostles in all wisdom. For the apostles were set over the Church as shepherds. Jeremiah 3:15: I will give you shepherds according to my heart, and they will feed you with knowledge and doctrine. Now two things pertain to shepherds, namely that they be lofty in the knowledge of divine things, and diligent in the practice of religion. For subjects must be instructed in the faith, and for this wisdom is necessary, which is the knowledge of divine things; and as to this he says in all wisdom. Luke 21:15: I will give you a mouth and wisdom, which all your adversaries will not be able to resist or contradict. Likewise, subjects must be governed in external matters, and for this prudence is necessary; for it directs in temporal things, and as to this he says prudence. Matthew 10:16: be therefore prudent, etc. Thus, then, appears the benefit of the apostles as to the excellence of wisdom.

There follows their benefit as to the excellence of revelation, at the place that he might make known the mystery, etc., as if to say: our wisdom is not that we should know the natures of things and the courses of the stars and things of this kind, but is in Christ alone. 1 Corinthians 2:2: for I did not judge myself to know anything among you, except Jesus Christ, etc. Hence here he says that he might make known the mystery, that is, the sacred secret, namely the mystery of the incarnation, which was hidden from the beginning.

Now he adds the cause of this hidden mystery, saying of his will. For future effects are not known unless their causes are known, just as we do not know a future eclipse except by knowing its cause. Since, then, the cause of the mystery of the incarnation is the will of God — because on account of the exceeding charity which God had toward men, he willed to become incarnate, John 3:16: for God so loved the world, that he gave his only-begotten Son — and the will of God is most hidden, 1 Corinthians 2:11: the things that are of God, no one knows, except the spirit of God — the cause of the incarnation was therefore hidden, except to those to whom God revealed it through the Holy Spirit, as the Apostle says in 1 Corinthians 2:10. He says therefore that he might make known the mystery, that is, the sacred secret, which is a secret precisely because it is of his will. Matthew 11:25: I confess to you, Lord, Father of heaven and earth, because you have hidden these things from the wise and prudent, and revealed them to little ones. Likewise Colossians 1:26: the mystery, which was hidden from ages and generations, but now has been made manifest to his saints, to whom God willed to make known the riches of the glory of this mystery.

But what this mystery is, he explains, saying according to the good pleasure, etc. This statement indeed is intricate, and must be construed thus: that he might make known, etc., which mystery indeed is to re-establish all things in Christ, that is, through Christ. All things, I say, which are in the heavens and on the earth. To re-establish, I say, in him, namely Christ, with the dispensation of the fullness of times, and this according to his good pleasure. Here he touches on three things, namely the cause of the mystery, the fittingness of the time, and the usefulness of the mystery.

He touches on the cause in a certain way when he says according to the good pleasure. Now although whatever pleases God is good, nevertheless this good pleasure of God is called good by antonomasia, because through it we are led to the perfect enjoyment of goodness. Psalm 146:11: the Lord's good pleasure is upon those who fear him, etc. Romans 12:2: that you may test what is the good, and well-pleasing, and perfect will of God.

The fittingness of the time was in the dispensation of the fullness, concerning which it is said in Galatians 4:4: but when the fullness of time came, God sent his Son, made of a woman. Hence the Apostle here excludes a frivolous question, which the gentiles were accustomed to ask. For as it is said in Job 24:1, the times are not hidden from the Almighty; hence, just as he orders and dispenses all things, so also the times, dispensing and adapting them to the effects which he produces according to their fittingness. Now just as times were ordained for the other effects produced by him, so also he preordained from eternity a definite time for the mystery of the incarnation. Which time indeed, according to the Gloss, was after man had been convicted of his folly — before the written law, namely when he worshipped creatures as the Creator, as it is said in Romans 1:22: saying that they were wise, they became fools; and of his powerlessness through the written law, which he was not able to fulfill. So that thus men, not presuming on their own wisdom and virtue, would not despise the coming of Christ, but, as if weak and in a certain way ignorant, would desire Christ more eagerly.

And the effect of this mystery is to re-establish all things. For insofar as they were made on account of man, all things are said to be re-established. Amos 9:11: I will raise up the tabernacle of David which has fallen, and I will rebuild the breaches of its walls, and the things that had fallen I will re-establish. All things, I say, which are in the heavens, that is, the angels: not that Christ died for the angels, but because by redeeming man, the ruin of the angels is made whole again. Psalm 109:6: he has filled up ruins, etc. Here the error of Origen must be guarded against, lest through this we believe that the damned angels are to be redeemed by Christ, as he himself imagined. And the things which are on earth, insofar as it pacifies heavenly things with earthly things. Colossians 1:20: making peace through the blood of his cross, whether the things that are on earth, or the things that are in heaven; which is to be understood as to sufficiency, even though not all things are restored as to efficacy.

Above, the Apostle set forth the abundance of grace which he himself and the other apostles received from Christ. But lest anyone should believe that they had received it by their own merits, he therefore consequently shows that they received it freely, called by God not by their own merits.

Now this part is divided into three: for first he sets forth the gratuitous calling; second, the voluntary predestination of God, at the place "predestined according to his purpose," etc.; third, the end of both, at the place "that we should be unto the praise of his glory," etc.

He says therefore: I said that grace of this kind superabounded in us, and that in Christ all things were restored. "In whom also," that is, through whom — Christ — "we have been called by lot," that is, not by our own merits, but by divine election. Colossians 1:12: "giving thanks to God and the Father, who has made us worthy to share in the lot of the saints in light," etc. Psalm 30:16: "In your hands are my lots."

Now for the understanding of this, it must be known that many things happen among men which seem fortuitous and contingent, and yet are ordered according to divine providence. A lot is nothing other than an inquiry into the divine providence concerning some contingent and human matter. Whence Augustine, commenting on that verse of Psalm 30:16, "in your hands are my lots," says that a lot is not something evil, but in doubtful matters it seeks out the divine will.

Now there is a threefold sin to be avoided in the casting of lots.

First indeed, the sin of superstition; for every vain and unlawful religious observance is superstition. The sin of unlawful superstition is therefore incurred in lots when in them some pact is entered into with demons. Whence it is said in Ezekiel 21:21: "The king of Babylon stood at the parting of the way, at the head of two ways, seeking divination, mingling arrows. He questioned the idols, he consulted the entrails." For to mingle arrows pertains to divination by lot, and to question idols pertains to superstition; and there divination by lot is condemned among the sins pertaining to superstition.

Second, the sin of tempting God is to be avoided. For as long as a man is able by himself to do something and to know what he ought to do, if he then seeks by lot from God, or in some other such manner, what he ought to do, he tempts God. But when necessity presses, and he himself cannot be helped by himself, then he lawfully inquires of God what he ought to do. 2 Chronicles 20:12: "since we do not know what we ought to do, this only remains to us, that we direct our eyes to you."

Third, the sin of vanity is to be avoided, which occurs if we inquire about things useless and not pertaining to us, as for instance about future contingent things. Whence it is said in Acts 1:7: "It is not for you to know the times or the moments, which the Father has placed in his own power."

According to this, therefore, a lot can be taken as threefold, namely a certain divisory kind, a certain consultory kind, and a certain divinatory kind.

The divisory kind is when some, dividing an inheritance and unable to agree, cast lots — showing, for instance, a ring, or a piece of paper, or something of the sort — saying: whoever it falls to, he shall have this portion in the inheritance. And lots of this kind can be cast lawfully. Proverbs 18:18: "The lot suppresses contradictions, and it decides also among the powerful," that is, among those wishing to divide.

The consultory kind occurs when someone, doubting what he ought to do, consults God, casting lots. It is said in Jonah 1:7 that when that storm came upon the sea, they consulted God, casting a lot, so that they might know by whose sin that storm had come. And this manner is lawful, especially in cases of necessity and in the elections of secular powers. Whence they make little rolls of wax, in some of which they place certain papers and in some not, which they call "bussuli," so that those to whom the bussuli with the papers come may have votes in the election. But this, before the coming of the Holy Spirit, the apostles did even in a spiritual election, Acts 1:26, when the lot fell upon Matthias; but this, after the coming of the Holy Spirit, is no longer lawful in the aforesaid elections, because in doing this one would do injury to the Holy Spirit. For it must be believed that the Holy Spirit provides good pastors for his Church. Whence, after the coming of the Holy Spirit, when the apostles elected the seven deacons, they did not cast lots; and therefore in no ecclesiastical election is it lawful in this manner.

The divinatory lot, however, is an inquiry concerning future things reserved to divine knowledge alone. And this always has vanity mixed in, nor can it occur without the vice of curiosity.

Since, therefore, a lot is nothing other than an inquiry into things which happen from the divine will, and grace depends on the divine will alone, hence it is that the grace of divine election is called a lot, because God, in the manner of a lot, according to hidden providence, not from anyone's merits, calls through interior grace.

Then, when he says "predestined," etc., he sets forth the voluntary predestination of God, concerning which it is said in Romans 8:30: "whom he predestined, these he also called." The reason indeed for this predestination is not our merits, but the mere will of God; on account of which he adds "according to his purpose." Romans 8:28: "We know that for those who love God, all things work together unto good, for those who according to his purpose are called saints."

Now that he predestined according to his purpose, he proves, because not only this, but also all the other things which God does, he works according to the counsel of his will. Psalm 134:6: "Whatever things the Lord willed, he has done." Isaiah 46:10: "My counsel shall stand, and all my will shall be done." But he does not say "according to will," lest you should believe that it is irrational, but "according to the counsel of his will" — that is, according to his will which is from reason; not according as reason implies discursive reasoning, but according as it designates a certain and deliberate will.

Lastly, he touches on the end of both, namely of predestination and of calling, namely the praise of God. Whence he says "that we should be unto the praise of his glory, we who before hoped in Christ," and through us, who believe in Christ, the glory of God is praised. Isaiah 55:12: "the mountains and the hills shall sing praise before God." Now the praise of the glory of God, as Ambrose says, is when many are gained to the faith, just as the glory of a physician is when he gains and cures many. Ecclesiasticus 2:9: "You who fear the Lord, hope in him, and in delight mercy will come to you."

After the Apostle has related the benefits conferred in common on all the faithful, and shown especially to the apostles, here he consequently enumerates the benefits conferred on the Ephesians themselves. This part is divided into two: first he sets forth the benefits shown to them; second he intimates his own affection aroused by these very benefits, at the place "wherefore I also, hearing," etc. The first is again divided into three, according to three benefits shown to them: first he sets forth the benefit of preaching; second the benefit of conversion to the faith, at the place "in whom also believing you were sealed"; third the benefit of justification, at the place "you were sealed," etc.

He says therefore, as to the first, "in whom" — namely Christ — "you also, when you had heard," that is, by whose benefit and power you heard, "the word of truth," that is, the word of preaching, inasmuch as Christ himself sent preachers to you. Romans 10:14: "How shall they hear without a preacher? And how shall they preach unless they be sent?" Likewise below, in the same place: "Therefore faith is from hearing, and hearing through the word of God." By his benefit, therefore, they hear, since he sends them preachers. Luke 11:28: "Blessed are they who hear the word of God, and keep it."

The Apostle commends this word of preaching in three ways. First from truth, when he says "the word of truth," since indeed it takes its origin from Christ, of whom it is said, John 17:17: "Your word is truth"; James 1:18: "Of his own will he begot us by the word of truth." Second, because it is a good Announcement. Hence he calls it "the Gospel," which indeed announces the highest good and eternal life; and by antonomasia the word of faith is called the Gospel, as it were the Announcement of the highest good. Isaiah 52:7: "How beautiful are the feet of him that announces and preaches peace, that announces good, that preaches salvation"; and in the same book, 41: "Get you up upon a high mountain, you that bring good tidings to Zion." And this is as to future goods. Third, it is described and commended as to present goods, because it saves. Hence he says "of your salvation," that is, that when believed it gives salvation. Romans 1:16: "For I am not ashamed of the Gospel: for it is the power of God unto salvation to everyone that believes." 1 Corinthians 15:1: "Now I make known to you, brothers, the Gospel which I preached to you, which also you have received, and wherein you stand, by which also you are saved."

As to the benefit of conversion to the faith, he says "in whom" — namely Christ — that is, in whose operation, you believing, "were sealed." This benefit is accordingly annexed to faith, because faith is necessary for those who hear. For someone would hear the word of truth in vain, if he did not believe, and the very act of believing is through Christ. Below, 2:8: "For by grace you are saved through faith. And this not of yourselves, for it is the gift of God."

But as to the benefit of justification he says "you were sealed," and this by the Holy Spirit, who was given to you; concerning whom he says three things, namely that he is a seal, and that he is the Spirit of promise, and that he is the pledge of the inheritance.

He is indeed a seal inasmuch as through him charity is infused into our hearts, by which we are distinguished from those who are not sons of God. And as to this he says "you were sealed," that is, divided from the flock of the Devil. Below, chapter 4, verse 30: "Do not grieve the Holy Spirit of God, in whom you were sealed," etc. For just as men put marks on their flocks, so that they may be distinguished from others, so the Lord willed his flock, that is, his people, to be marked with a spiritual seal.

Now the Lord had a peculiar people; in the Old Testament indeed, the Jews. Ezekiel 34:31: "But you my flocks, the flocks of my pasture, are men." Hence Psalm 94:7: "But we are his people, and the sheep of his pasture." But because this flock was fed in bodily pastures, namely in bodily teaching and in temporal goods — Isaiah 1:19: "If you be willing, and will hearken to me, you shall eat the good things of the land" — therefore the Lord separated and distinguished it from others by a bodily sign, namely that of circumcision. Genesis 17:13: "And my covenant shall be in your flesh." And before this it is said: "You shall circumcise the flesh of your foreskin, that it may be a sign of the covenant between me and you."

But in the New Testament he had the Christian people as his flock. 1 Peter 2:25: "You are now converted to the shepherd and bishop of your souls." John 10:27: "My sheep hear my voice," etc. But this flock is fed in pastures of spiritual teaching and spiritual goods; therefore the Lord distinguished it from others by a spiritual sign. And this is the Holy Spirit, through whom those who are Christ's are distinguished from others who are not his.

But since the Holy Spirit is love, therefore the Holy Spirit is then given to someone when he becomes a lover of God and neighbor. Romans 5:5: "The charity of God is poured forth in our hearts through the Holy Spirit," etc. The sign of distinction, therefore, is charity, which is from the Holy Spirit. John 13:35: "By this shall all know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another." The Holy Spirit, therefore, is that by which we are sealed.

But he is called the Spirit of promise for a threefold reason. First, because he was promised to the faithful. Ezekiel 36:26: "I will put a new spirit within you." And Ezekiel 37:6: "I will give you a new spirit." Second, because he is given with a certain promise; for by this very fact that he is given to us, we are made sons of God. For through the Holy Spirit we are made one with Christ — Romans 8:9: "But if any man have not the Spirit of God, he is none of his" — and consequently we are made adopted sons of God, from which we have the promise of the eternal inheritance, because "if sons, then heirs," Romans 8:17. Third, he is called a pledge, inasmuch as he produces certainty concerning the promised inheritance. For the Holy Spirit, inasmuch as he adopts us as sons of God, is the Spirit of promise, and he himself is the sign of the promise to be obtained.

But, as is said in the Gloss, another text has "who is the earnest of the inheritance," and perhaps this is better, because a pledge is something other than the thing for which it is given, and it is given back after the one who receives the pledge receives the thing owed to him. But an earnest is not something other than the thing for which it is given, nor is it given back; because it is given as part of the very price, which is not to be taken away, but completed. But God has given us charity as a pledge, through the Holy Spirit, who is the Spirit of truth and love. And therefore this is nothing other than a certain particular and imperfect participation in the divine charity and love, which indeed is not to be taken away, but perfected; therefore it is more properly called an earnest than a pledge.

Nevertheless, it can nonetheless also be called a pledge. For through the Holy Spirit God bestows on us various gifts, of which some remain in our homeland, such as charity, which never fails — 1 Corinthians 13:8; but some, on account of their imperfection, do not remain, such as faith and hope, which will be emptied out, as is said in the same place. Thus, therefore, the Holy Spirit is called an earnest with respect to those things which remain, but a pledge with respect to those things which will be emptied out.

But as to the purpose for which we were sealed, he adds, saying, "unto the redemption." For if someone were newly to acquire some animals and add them to his flock, he would place on them signs of that acquisition. But Christ acquired a people from the Gentiles. John 10:16: "Other sheep I have, that are not of this fold, and them also I must bring," etc. And therefore he impressed on them a sign of acquisition. 1 Peter 2:9: "A holy nation, a people of acquisition." Acts 20:28: "Which he purchased with his own blood."

But because Christ acquired this people not in such a way that it had never been his, but because it had at one time been his, yet was being oppressed by the servitude of the Devil — into which it had reduced itself by sinning — therefore he does not simply say "acquired," but adds "unto the redemption," as if to say: not simply acquired anew, but as it were redeemed from the servitude of the Devil through his blood. 1 Peter 1:18: "You were not redeemed with corruptible things, gold or silver," etc. Christ, therefore, acquired us by redeeming us, not that anything should thereby accrue to God; for he has no need of our goods. Job 35:7: "If you do justly, what will you give him? Or what shall he receive from your hand?"

But as to the purpose for which Christ acquired us, he adds "unto the praise of his glory," that is, that God himself may be praised. Isaiah 43:7: "He that calls upon my name, I have created him for my glory."

After the Apostle enumerated the benefits conferred on the Ephesians through Christ, here he shows how his affection grew toward them. This part is divided into three parts: for first he sets forth a commemoration of the good things which he heard about them; second, the due giving of thanks for the benefits received, at "I cease not giving thanks," etc.; third, his prayer for future benefits is added, at "making mention of you," etc.

Now the good things which he heard about them are two. One is that by which they are ordered to God, and this is faith, and as to this he says, "therefore I also, hearing of your faith which is in Christ Jesus" — which indeed makes God dwell in man. Below, Ephesians 3:17: "that Christ may dwell through faith in your hearts." Likewise, it purifies hearts. Acts 15:9: "purifying their hearts by faith." Likewise, it justifies without the law. Romans 3:28: "we reckon that a man is justified by faith without the works of the law."

The second is that by which they are ordered to their neighbor, and this is love, and as to this he says, "and the love," that is, the works of charity — which love indeed is the spiritual sign that a man is a disciple of Christ. John 13:35: "by this shall all men know that you are my disciples, if you have love," etc. And in the same place, John 13:34: "a new commandment I give you, that you love one another," etc. "The love," I say, "toward all the saints." For all whom we love out of charity, we ought to love either because they are holy, or so that they may be holy. Galatians 6:10: "while we have time, let us work good to all, but especially to those who are of the household of the faith," etc.

Then when he says "I cease not," etc., the Apostle gives thanks for the good things and benefits of this kind that he has heard of, saying, "I cease not giving thanks," etc. An objection arises: because he could not always continually give thanks for them. I respond: the Apostle says "I cease not," that is, at the due hours; or, "I cease not" because the disposition of giving thanks for you is habitually in me without ceasing. Colossians 1:9: "we cease not to pray for you, and to ask," etc. Romans 1:9-10: "without ceasing I make mention of you always in my prayers."

Consequently the Apostle prays for the benefits to be granted to them in the future, and as to this he says, "making mention of you," etc. And this is divided into three: for first he sets forth certain things which he asks for them; second he explains them, at "unto the knowledge of him," etc.; third he shows the exemplar and form of those things, at "according to the working of his power," etc.

He says, therefore, as to the first: I not only give thanks for the past benefits which you have received, and for the good things heard about you, but I also pray that they may altogether increase in the future. "Making mention of you in my prayers" — for these things, namely, "that the God of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of glory," etc.

Here it must be known that our Lord Jesus Christ is both God and man. And insofar as he is man, he has God, since he is composed of soul and body, to each of which — since they are creatures — it belongs to have God; but insofar as he is God, he has a Father. John 20:17: "I ascend to my Father and your Father, my God and your God." Likewise also, insofar as he is God, he is the glory of the Father. Hebrews 1:3: "who, being the splendor of glory," etc. He is also our glory, because he himself is eternal life. 1 John, last chapter, 20: "that we may be in his true Son; this is the true God, and eternal life." Thus, therefore, he says "the God of our Lord Jesus Christ" according as he is man, and "the Father of the same" according as he is God; the Father, I say, "of glory," namely of Christ, who is his glory — Proverbs 10:1: "a wise son is the glory of his father," etc. — and Father of our glory, insofar as he gives glory to all.

Then when he says "may give unto you," etc., he sets forth the things which he asks for, which are two. Here it must be known that certain gifts are common to all the saints, namely those which are necessary for salvation, such as faith, hope, and charity — and these they had, as is already clear. But there are other, special gifts, and as to these he prays for them. First indeed for the gift of wisdom, and as to this he says, "that he may give you the spirit of wisdom," which no one can give except God. Wisdom 9:17: "and who shall know your thought, unless you give wisdom, and send your holy spirit from on high?" Second, he prays for the gift of understanding, and this consists in the revelation of spiritual secrets, on account of which he says, "and of revelation," which also is from God alone. Daniel 2:28: "there is a God in heaven who reveals mysteries."

Now he explains what these things are which he asks for: first, what pertains to the gift of wisdom; second, what pertains to the gift of understanding, at "that you may know what is the hope," etc.

Now to the gift of wisdom pertains the knowledge of divine things. Hence to ask for the gift of wisdom is to ask that they may have the knowledge of God, and this he asks at "unto the knowledge of God," etc., as if to say: this I ask, that through the spirit of wisdom you may have the eyes of your heart enlightened unto the knowledge — namely, the clearer knowledge — of him, namely of God. Psalm 12:4: "enlighten my eyes," etc. This is against those who have their eyes enlightened only to know temporal things, whereas it is much more necessary, and indeed glorious, to know God. Jeremiah 3:23f.: "let not the wise man glory in his wisdom, and let not the rich man glory in his riches; but let him who glories, glory in this, that he knows and understands me."

To the gift of understanding he sets forth three things pertaining: one as to the present state, and two as to the future. To the present state indeed pertains hope, which is necessary for salvation. Romans 8:24: "for by hope we are saved," etc. And as to this he says, "that you may know what," that is, how great, "is the hope of his calling," that is, the power of hope, and how great a thing it concerns. Which indeed is also the greatest, because it concerns the greatest things. 1 Peter 1:3: "he has regenerated us unto a living hope, through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead," etc. And it is the strongest of the virtues. Hebrews 6:18: "that we may have the strongest comfort, we who have fled to hold fast the hope set before us, which we have as an anchor of the soul," etc.

But because the things we hope for concern the future life, therefore the other two pertain to the future life. One indeed pertains to all the just in common, which is the essential reward, and as to this he says, "and what are the riches of the glory," etc. Here he sets forth four things pertaining to those gifts.

The first is that they are most abundant, and as to this he says "riches." Proverbs 1:33: "he shall enjoy abundance, the fear of evils being removed." Psalm 111:3: "glory and riches are in his house," etc. Proverbs 8:18: "with me are riches and glory," etc.

Second, that they are most glorious, and as to this he says "of glory." Romans 2:10: "but glory, and honor, and peace to every one that works good," etc.

Third, that they are most stable, and as to this he says "of the inheritance." For those things which are hereditary are possessed stably. Ecclesiasticus 31:11: "his goods are established in the Lord." Psalm 15:5: "the Lord is the portion of my inheritance and of my cup," etc.

Fourth, that they will be intimate, and as to this he says "in the saints." Romans 8:18: "the sufferings of this time are not worthy," etc. 2 Corinthians 4:17: "works in us, beyond measure, a weight of glory in sublimity."

The other thing which he sets forth pertaining to future glory is that which specially pertains to the apostles, hence he says, "and what is" (supply: "that you may know") "the surpassing greatness of his power toward us," namely, the apostles. As if to say: although he abundantly bestows the riches of glory on all the saints, yet he will bestow them more surpassingly on the apostles. For the greatness of power is shown in its effect. Hence the more the effect of the divine power is found in someone, the greater the divine power is shown to be there, although in itself it is one and undivided. And therefore, because a greater effect of the divine power is in the apostles, therefore the greatness of the power will be in them. And that the effect is greater in them he shows, saying, "who believe," that is, who are the firstfruits of believers. 2 Corinthians 4:13f.: "we believe, for which reason we also speak, knowing that he who raised up Jesus will also raise us up with Jesus." On account of which he said, 2 Timothy 1:12: "I know whom I have believed," etc.

Therefore those among you through whom others were instructed and called to the faith, such as teachers, will be rewarded more preeminently; because, as is said in the Gloss, the greatest teachers will have a certain increase of glory beyond that which all will have in common, on account of which, Daniel 12:3: the learned are likened to the splendor of the firmament, but teachers are likened to the stars: "and they that are learned shall shine as the splendor of the firmament, and they that instruct many unto justice, as stars for perpetual eternities."

Having enumerated the benefits which the Apostle desires to be conferred on the Ephesians in the future, here he consequently sets down the form and exemplar of those benefits. But just as the life of Christ is the form and exemplar of our justice, so too the glory and exaltation of Christ is the form and exemplar of our glory and exaltation. Therefore the Apostle here does two things: first he sets forth the form of the exaltation of the benefits and gifts in general; secondly he makes it manifest in particular, at the place raising him up from the dead, etc. Now the form and exemplar of the divine operation toward us is the divine operation in Christ. And as to this he says according to the operation, that is, according to the likeness of the operation, of the might of his power, that is, of the powerful might of God, which he wrought in Christ, exalting that head — supply: so he will powerfully work in us. Philippians 3:20-21: we await the Savior, our Lord Jesus Christ, who will reform the body of our lowliness, etc. Now that we are to be exalted after the likeness of Christ's exaltation we frequently read in Scripture. Romans 8:17: if we suffer with him, that we may also be glorified. Likewise Apocalypse 3:21: he who shall overcome, I will give him to sit with me on my throne, as I also have overcome and have sat with my Father on his throne.

Consequently he explains the form and exemplar in particular, making manifest the things that pertain to the exaltation of Christ, speaking of Christ inasmuch as he is man, saying raising him up, etc. Concerning this he sets down three benefits of the exaltation of Christ. The first is the passage from death to life, and as to this he says raising him up from the dead. The second is the exaltation to the highest glory, and as to this he says setting him at his right hand. The third is the elevation to the greatest power, and as to this he says and hath subjected all things under his feet.

He says therefore as to the first: I say that this will be according to the operation which he wrought in Christ, namely God the Father, by the same power which he has in common with Christ. Whence Christ himself also raised himself up, and God the Father raised him up. Romans 8:11: if the Spirit of him who raised up Jesus from the dead dwell in you, he who raised up Jesus from the dead shall also quicken your mortal bodies.

As to the second, he says setting him, etc. This loftiness of glory can indeed be considered in three ways, namely by comparison to God, by comparison to bodily creatures, and by comparison to spiritual creatures. If therefore it is considered by comparison to God, thus he is set at his right hand — which right hand indeed is not to be understood as a bodily part, since, as it is said in John 4:24, God is a spirit, but it is said metaphorically, so that just as by the right hand is understood the nobler and more excellent part of a man, so when we say that Christ Jesus is set at the right hand of God, it is to be understood that, according to his humanity, he is set among the more excellent goods of the Father, and according to his divinity, he is understood to be equal to the Father. Whence Psalm 109:1: the Lord said to my Lord: sit thou at my right hand, etc. Likewise Mark, last chapter: and the Lord Jesus, after he had spoken to them, was taken up into heaven, and sitteth at the right hand of God.

Now in comparison to bodily creatures he says in the heavenly places. For the heavenly bodies hold the highest place in comparison to other bodies. Below, chapter 4:10: he who descended, the same is he who also ascended above all the heavens.

Now in comparison to spiritual creatures, first he says that Christ is exalted above certain of them specially; secondly above all of them generally, at the place and above every name, etc. For the understanding of these things, one must know that there are nine orders of angels, of which the Apostle here touches four, which are indeed the middle ones. For above them are three higher orders, namely thrones, cherubim, and seraphim. Below them, however, are two lower orders, namely archangels and angels. These nine orders are distinguished into three hierarchies, that is, sacred principalities, in each of which three orders are assigned. But in the assignation of the orders of the first hierarchy all the doctors agree in this, namely that its highest order is the seraphim, the second cherubim, the third thrones. But in the assignation of the orders of the other two hierarchies, namely the middle and the lowest, Dionysius and Gregory disagree. For Dionysius, in the highest order of the middle hierarchy, places dominations; in the second, virtues; in the third, powers, descending. In the highest order of the lowest hierarchy he placed principalities; in the second, archangels; in the third, angels. And this assignation of orders agrees with the present letter. For the Apostle, ascending, begins from the highest of the lowest hierarchy, which is the seventh. Gregory, however, orders them otherwise, because he places principalities in the middle between dominations and powers, which pertains to the second order of the middle hierarchy; but he places virtues in the middle between powers and archangels, which pertains to the highest order of the lowest hierarchy. And this assignation also has support from the words of the Apostle, Colossians 3, where he says whether thrones, or dominations, or principalities, or powers, where he enumerates those orders descending. But, reserving the ordering of Gregory until we read the epistle to the Colossians, for the present we shall pursue the way of Dionysius as more suited to the present letter.

For the understanding of this one must know that the order of things can be considered in three ways. First, indeed, according as they are in the first cause of all, namely in God; secondly, according as they are in universal causes; thirdly, according to the determination to special effects. And because all things that come to be in creatures are ministered through angels, therefore according to the threefold reception of the order of things, three angelic hierarchies are distinguished, to one of which it pertains to receive the reasons of things in the very summit of things, namely God; to another it pertains to receive the reasons of things in universal causes; and to another in proper effects. For the more the angelic minds are higher, the more they receive the divine illumination in a greater universality. And therefore to the highest hierarchy pertains the administration of things in comparison to God. On account of which the orders of that hierarchy are named by comparison to God, since the seraphim are called burning, and united to God through love. The cherubim, however, as it were shining, insofar as they know the divine secrets in a supereminent way. The thrones, however, are so called insofar as God exercises his judgments in them. And of these three orders the Apostle here makes no mention.

To the middle hierarchy pertains the administration of things by comparison to universal causes. Whence the orders of that hierarchy are named by names pertaining to power, since universal causes are, by virtue and power, in the lower and particular things. Now to powers, which have universal rule, three things pertain. First, that there be some who direct by command; secondly, that there be some who repel impediments to the execution; thirdly, that there be some who order how the others are to carry out the command. Of these the first pertains to the dominations, which, as Dionysius says, are free from all subjection, and are not sent to exterior things, but themselves command those who are sent. The second pertains to the virtues, which afford facility for fulfilling the command. The third pertains to the powers, who carry out the command.

To the lowest hierarchy pertains the administration of things by comparison to special effects, whence they are named by names pertaining to those effects. Whence those are called angels who carry out the things that pertain to the salvation of individuals; archangels, however, those who carry out the things that pertain to the salvation and benefit of great numbers. Principalities, however, are called those who preside over individual provinces.

These things, then, having been explained, Christ is above all. But of these four the Apostle makes special mention. The reason for this is that the names of these four orders are imposed from dignity; and because he is treating of the dignity of Christ, therefore here he names them specially, in order to show that Christ exceeds every created dignity.

Consequently, when he says and every name that is named, etc., he shows that Christ is exalted commonly above every spiritual creature. For he had said above that Christ is exalted above all spiritual creatures which are named from power, but because besides those orders of angels, in Sacred Scripture certain other orders of heavenly spirits are found, namely seraphim and cherubim and thrones, and of these he had not made mention, therefore he shows that Christ, according as he is man, is exalted above all such orders: on account of which he adds, saying and above every name, etc., that is, not only principalities, but above everything nameable. For one must know that a name is imposed for the knowing of a thing, whence it signifies the substance of the thing, since the signified of the name is the definitive account of the thing. When therefore he says and every name that is named, he gives it to be understood that he is exalted above every substance of which notice can be had and which can be comprehended by a name. This I say so that the substance of the divinity may be excluded, which is incomprehensible. Whence the Gloss says above every name, that is, nameable. And lest it be understood that he is above the name of God, he therefore adds that is named. For the divine majesty can be concluded or named by no name.

He adds, however, not only in this age, but also in that which is to come, because many things come to be in this age which we comprehend by knowledge and name; there are, however, certain things in the age to come, which cannot be comprehended here, nor even named, because, as it is said in 1 Corinthians 13:9, we know in part, and we prophesy in part. These things, however, are named by the blessed, who are in the age to come. Of this sort, moreover, are those of which the Apostle says, 2 Corinthians 12:4, that he heard secret words, which it is not granted to man to utter. And yet above all these things Christ is exalted. Philippians 2:9: he gave him a name which is above every name.

Above, the Apostle treated of the exaltation of Christ, both as to his passage from death to life, in that clause "raising him up," etc., and as to his exaltation to the highest glory, in that clause "and setting him at his right hand," etc. Here he treats of his exaltation as to his greatest power. Concerning this he does two things: first he treats of Christ's power with respect to the whole of creation; second, of his power with respect to the Church, at the place "and him he gave," etc.

He says, therefore, that with respect to the whole of creation he has universal power, because "he subjected all things" — namely God the Father — "under his feet." Here it must be known that what he says, "under his feet," can be taken in two ways.

In one way, so that it is a figurative and similitudinary expression, namely that by this it is given to be understood that every creature is totally subject to the power of Christ. For that is wholly subject to us which we trample underfoot. And of this power it is said in Matthew, last chapter: "all power is given to me in heaven and on earth." Hebrews 2:8: "for in that all things are subjected to him, he left nothing not subject to him."

In another way, so that it is a metaphorical expression. For by "feet" is understood the lowest part of the body, and by "head" the highest. But although in Christ the divinity and the humanity do not have the character of a part, nevertheless the divinity, which is the highest in Christ, is understood by "head" — 1 Corinthians 11:3: "but the head of Christ is God" — while the humanity, which is the lowest, is understood by "feet" — Psalm 131:7: "we will adore in the place where his feet stood." The sense, therefore, is that the Father subjected all created things not only to Christ inasmuch as he is God, to whom all things are subject from eternity, but also to his humanity.

It must be noted here that some things are subjected to Christ in two ways, because some are subjected voluntarily, and some involuntarily. But Origen, not understanding this, took from this word of the Apostle an occasion for error, saying that all things which are subjected to Christ participate in salvation, because he himself is true salvation. And therefore he said that all demons and the damned will at some time be saved, since they are subjected under the feet of Christ. But this is against the sentence of the Lord, Matthew 25:41: "depart from me, you cursed, into eternal fire, which is prepared for the Devil and his angels"; and he concludes at the end of the chapter: "these shall go into eternal punishment."

It must be said, therefore, that he subjected all things under his feet, but some voluntarily as to a savior — for instance, the just, who in the present life fulfill the will of God, and these are subjected to him so that he may fulfill their desire and will, awaiting that which is said of the good, Proverbs 10:24: "their desire shall be given to the just." But some are subjected to him unwillingly, as to a judge, so that Christ may do his own will concerning them. And these are the wicked, concerning whom that saying can be understood, Luke 19:27: "but as for those my enemies who would not have me reign over them, bring them here and slay them before me."

Then when he says "and him he gave as head," etc., he treats of the power of Christ with respect to the Church. Concerning this he does three things: first he sets down the relation of Christ to the Church; second, the relation of the Church to Christ; third, he expounds that relation.

As to the first, he says "and him he gave" — God the Father — "as head over the whole Church," namely both the militant, which consists of men living in the present, and the triumphant, which consists of men and angels in the fatherland. For Christ, according to certain common respects, is head even of the angels — Colossians 2:10: "who is the head of all principality and power" — but according to special respects Christ is spiritually the head of men. For the head has a threefold relation to the members. First indeed as to preeminence in position; second, as to the diffusion of powers, because from it all the senses are derived into the members; likewise, as to conformity in nature.

Thus, then, as to preeminence and as to diffusion, Christ is the head of the angels. For Christ presides over the angels, even according to his humanity. Hebrews 1:4: "having become so much better than the angels, as he has inherited a more excellent name above them." Likewise Christ, even as man, illumines the angels and exerts influence in them, as Dionysius proves from the words of Isaiah 63:1, namely: "who is this that comes from Edom," etc., saying that these words are those of the highest angels. But what follows, "I who speak justice," he says to be the words of Christ answering them immediately. From which it is given to be understood that Christ illumines not only the lower but also the higher angels.

But as to conformity of nature, Christ is not the head of the angels, because he did not take hold of the angels, but the seed of Abraham, as is said in Hebrews 2:16 — but he is the head of men only. Song of Songs 4:9: "you have wounded my heart, my sister" — namely by nature — "and my spouse" — by grace.

As to the relation of the Church to Christ, he says "which is his body," namely inasmuch as it is subject to him, and receives influence from him, and has a nature conformed with Christ. 1 Corinthians 12:12: "for as the body is one and has many members, and all the members of the body, though they are many, are yet one body, so also is Christ; for in one spirit we have all been baptized into one body."

But he expounds what he said, "which is his body," adding "and the fullness of him," etc. For to one asking why in a natural body there are so many members, namely hands, feet, mouth and the like, the answer is that this is so that they may serve the diverse operations of the soul, of which the soul itself can be the cause and principle, and which are virtually present in it. For the body was made on account of the soul, and not the other way around. Hence according to this, the natural body is a certain fullness of the soul. For unless the members were complete along with the body, the soul could not fully exercise its operations.

And so likewise it is thus with Christ and the Church. And because the Church is instituted on account of Christ, it is said that the Church is his fullness, namely Christ's — that is, so that all things which are virtually in Christ may be fulfilled, as it were in a certain way, in the members of the Church itself: namely, while all the spiritual senses, and gifts, and whatever can be in the Church — all of which are superabundantly in Christ — are derived from him into the members of the Church and are perfected in them. Hence he adds "who is fulfilled all in all," namely while he makes this one, who is a member of the Church, wise according to the perfect wisdom which is in him; and that one just according to perfect justice; and so of the others.