Commentary on Galatians (Super Epistolam B. Pauli ad Galatas Lectura)

"The old things you shall cast away, when the new ones come upon them" (Leviticus 26:10). These words fit the present epistle, in which the Apostle rebukes the Galatians, who had been seduced by a false apostle to such an extent that they observed the legal precepts together with the Gospel at the same time. The Apostle reproaches them for this in the words set down above, saying: "The old things you shall cast away, when the new ones come upon them." In these words the Lord points to a fourfold oldness.

The first oldness is that of error, concerning which Isaiah 26:3 says: "The old error has departed." And this is removed through the newness of the doctrine of Christ. Mark 1:27: "What is this new doctrine?"

The second oldness is that of figure, concerning which Hebrews 8:8 says: "I will perfect a new testament over the house of David, and over Judah, not according to the testament that I made with their fathers." In this he shows first that the first testament was old, and that it is renewed through the newness of grace, that is, of the presence of the truth of Christ. Jeremiah 31:22: "The Lord will make a new thing upon the earth," and so on.

The third is the oldness of guilt, concerning which Psalm 31:3 says: "Because I was silent" — that is, in confessing my sins — "they grew old," and so on. And this is renewed through the newness of righteousness. Romans 6:4: "Let us walk in newness of life," and so on.

The fourth is the oldness of punishment. Lamentations 3:4: "I have made my skin old." And this will be renewed through the newness of glory, concerning which newness Isaiah, the last chapter, says: "Behold, I create a new heaven," etc.; Apocalypse 21:21: "He who sat upon the throne said: Behold, I make all things new."

The Apostle, therefore, writes this epistle to the Galatians, in which he shows that, with the grace of the New Testament coming, the Old Testament ought to be cast aside, so that, once the truth has been fulfilled, the figure may be abandoned; and when these two, namely grace and truth, have been obtained, one arrives at the truth of righteousness and glory. But these two are acquired if, the observance of the legal precepts having been set aside, we fervently insist upon the observance of the Gospel of Christ.

The order of this epistle is fitting, in that after the two epistles to the Corinthians — in the first of which the sacraments of the Church are treated, in the second the ministers of these sacraments — the epistle to the Galatians necessarily follows, in which is treated the cessation of the sacraments of the Old Testament.

This epistle is divided into two parts: into the salutation, and the epistolary narration, at the words "I marvel that," etc. In the salutation, first the person of the one greeting is set forth; second, the persons greeted are set forth, at the words "to the churches of Galatia," etc.; third, the good that is wished, at the words "grace to you," etc.

Concerning the first, first the person principally greeting is set forth, who is described from his name and from his authority. From his name, indeed, when he says "Paul," which is fitting to his humility, because it is interpreted "humble." Hence it is said in 1 Corinthians 16:9: "I am the least of the apostles," etc. Likewise it is fitting to his office, because according to another interpretation it means "mouth of a trumpet," in which the office of preaching is especially signified. Isaiah 58:1: "Lift up your voice like a trumpet," etc.

But he is described from authority, when it is said "apostle." Here two things are set forth, namely his authority, and the origin of his authority. His authority, because "apostle," which is the same as "one sent." It should be known that the Apostle, in certain epistles, writes of himself as "servant," showing the name of humility, as in the epistle to the Romans; but in certain others he writes of himself as "apostle," showing his authority. The reason for this is that the Romans were proud, and therefore the Apostle, in order to lead them to humility, writes of himself as "servant," as an example of humility. But to the Galatians, because they were foolish and proud, in order to break them, he names himself "apostle"; and therefore here he sets forth his authority.

He describes the origin of his authority when he says "not from men," etc. And first he removes the supposed origin; second he assigns the true one, at the words "but through Jesus Christ," etc.

Now the supposed origin was this: that the Galatians had been seduced by false [teachers] to such an extent that they believed the Apostle did not have the same authority that the other apostles had, because he had not been taught by Christ or had lived with him, but had been sent by them, as it were their minister. He therefore removes this opinion when he says "not from men," etc. For some were sent by the whole college of the apostles and disciples. And therefore, showing that he was not sent by them, he says "not from men." For some were sent by some particular one of the apostles, just as Paul at times sent Luke and Titus. And therefore, showing that he was not sent in this way either, he says "nor through man," that is, through any one of the apostles in particular, but through the Holy Spirit, who says, Acts 13:2: "Separate for me," etc.

But the true cause of the origin of this authority is Christ Jesus, and therefore he says "but through Jesus Christ, and God the Father." Now this distinction, when he says "through Jesus Christ and God the Father," can be understood either as to the person of the Father and the person of the Son, and then God the Father is one in person, and Jesus Christ another. But the blessed Apostle Paul was sent to preach by both, and by the whole Trinity, because the works of the Trinity are inseparable. No mention is made of the person of the Holy Spirit, because, since he is the union and bond of the two, when the two persons — namely the Father and the Son — are set forth, the Holy Spirit is also understood. Or the aforesaid distinction can be taken as to the nature assumed, namely the human nature, because according to the divine nature there is no distinction between God the Father and Jesus Christ. And then Paul was sent through God the Father, as through the author, and through Jesus Christ, as through the minister. Romans 15:8: "I say that Jesus Christ was a minister," etc.

But because the Galatians disparaged the Apostle for not having lived with Christ as the others had, nor having been sent by him, therefore in this respect he especially magnifies himself, because those others were sent by Christ while he was still living in mortal flesh, whereas he himself was sent by Christ already glorified; therefore he says "who" — namely God the Father — "raised him" — namely Jesus Christ, insofar as he is man — "from the dead." As if to say: I am an apostle, not from men, namely the college of apostles, nor through man, namely Christ living in mortal flesh, but I am an apostle through Christ already raised and glorified. Romans 6:9: "Christ, rising from the dead," etc. And because the present life is signified by the left, but the future life by the right, inasmuch as the latter is heavenly and spiritual while the former is temporal, therefore Peter, who was called by Christ while he was still placed in mortal flesh, is placed on the left side in the Pope's seal; but Paul, who was called by Christ already glorified, is placed on the right side.

Consequently, when he says "and who are with me," etc., the persons joined with him in greeting are set forth, whom he describes from sweet familiarity, because they are "with me," namely for comfort and help. Proverbs 18:19: "A brother who is helped by a brother," etc. Psalm 132:1: "Behold how good," etc. Likewise from inseparable charity, when he says "brothers"; John 13:35: "By this shall all know," etc. Likewise from universality, when he says "all"; which he adds for this reason, that these people were perhaps so seduced that they would not have regarded the word of Paul. And therefore he says "all who are with me," in order to show that they are witnesses of his truth, and that they might easily understand that they were in error, since they were being rebuked by all. 2 Corinthians 2:6: "Sufficient for him who is such is this rebuke, which is given by many," etc.

But he sets forth the persons greeted, when he says "to the churches of Galatia," etc. Here it should be known that, as is touched on in the Gloss, Brennus, leader of the Senones, once, having gathered an army, entered Italy; having passed through it, he came into Greece before the time of Alexander the Great, where, since some of his people remained, in one part of Greece they mixed themselves with the Greeks; hence that province was called Gallograecia; then those people were called Galatians, as if [to say] "white ones." And although the Greeks are of sharp intellect, nevertheless those Galatians were foolish and unstable and rather slow to understand, like the untrainable Gauls, from whom they drew their origin. And therefore below he says to them: "O foolish Galatians," etc. To these, then, he writes this epistle, and these are the persons greeted.

Consequently, when he says "grace to you," etc., he sets forth the goods which he wishes for them. And first he sets forth the goods themselves that are wished; second, the author of these goods, at the words "from God the Father," etc.

The goods which he wishes for them are two, in which all spiritual things are included. The first is grace, which is the principle of spiritual life, to which is ascribed in the Gloss the remission of sins, which is the first thing in spiritual life. For no one can be in the true spiritual life unless he first dies to sin. The second is peace, which is the quieting of the mind at the end, which is said in the Gloss to be reconciliation to God. And thus, in wishing the beginning and the end of all spiritual goods, the Apostle includes, as it were between two extremes, the desire of every good that is to come to them. Psalm 83:12: "The Lord will give grace and glory." 2 Corinthians, last chapter: "The grace of our Lord," etc.

But the author of these goods is God the Father, and therefore he says "from God the Father," etc. Here first the cause of the goods is set forth; second, the manner of causing, at the words "who gave"; third, the giving of thanks for these goods, at the words "to whom be honor," etc.

The cause and authority of the goods is God the Father as author, insofar as he is God, and the whole Trinity, which is called the God of all through creation. Wisdom 14:3: "But you, Father, govern," etc. And therefore he says "from God the Father," etc. Likewise the Lord Jesus Christ is the author, as minister, and this insofar as he is man. Romans 15:8: "I say that Jesus Christ [was] a minister," etc. And that grace comes to us through Christ is evident from John 1:17: "Grace and truth came through Jesus Christ," etc. Romans 5: "Justified freely," etc. Peace also is ours through him. John 14:27: "My peace I give to you," etc.

But the manner of causing these goods is set forth when he says "who gave up," etc. Here first the efficient cause is set forth, which is the death of Christ. And as to this he says "who gave himself," etc., as if to say: Christ is therefore the author of grace and peace because he gave himself over to death and sustained the cross. Hence the very death of Christ is the efficient cause of grace. Romans 5: "Justified freely," etc.; and Colossians 1:20: "Making peace as to the things in heaven," etc. And he says first "who gave," etc., that is, he offered himself willingly. Ephesians 5:2: "Christ loved us, and gave," etc. Hebrews 2:9: "That he might taste death for all of us." Titus 2:14: "Who gave himself," etc.

From which the Apostle clearly argues against them that, if the death of Christ is the sufficient cause of our salvation, and in the sacraments of the New Testament — which have their efficacy from the passion of Christ — grace is conferred, then it is superfluous to observe the legal precepts together with the New Testament, since in them grace is not conferred nor is salvation acquired, because "the law brought no one to perfection," as is found in Hebrews 7:19.

Second, the end and usefulness of these goods is set forth, which is the final cause. And it is twofold: one is that we might be freed from past sins, and as to this he says "for our sins," namely to be blotted out and expiated, which is the beginning of our salvation. Apocalypse 1:5: "He loved us," etc. The other end is that he might free us from the power of death, and as to this he says "that he might deliver us from the present," etc. Colossians 1:13: "He delivered us from the power," etc.

And he sets forth three things, namely "that he might deliver," he says, "from the present," and "age," and "evil." "That he might deliver [us] from the present," by drawing us to eternal things, through desire and hope. "From the age," that is, from conformity to this world which entices us, so that we may not be conformed to it. Romans 12:2: "Do not be conformed to this age," etc. "Evil," leading us back to the truth of righteousness. And the age is called "evil," not on account of its own nature, since it is good, having been created by God, but on account of the evils which are done in it, as that [text] of Ephesians 5:16: "The days are evil," etc. Genesis 47:9, Jacob said: "The days of the years of my pilgrimage are a hundred and thirty years, few and evil," etc.

And although these things are ours through Christ, God the Father is nevertheless not excluded. And therefore, third, the acceptance of the divine will is set forth. Hence he says "according to the will of God and the Father." The Father, I say, of Christ by nature, according to which he proceeds from eternity, as the Word. Psalm 2:7: "Today I have begotten you." John 1:1: "In the beginning was the Word," etc. Likewise, our Father through adoption. John 1:12: "He gave them power," etc. In the first way, the term "God the Father" is taken for the person of the Father alone; in the second way, for the whole Trinity. And because from God our Father, namely from the whole Trinity, all these things come to us through Christ, therefore to him — namely to the whole Trinity — be glory, in himself, and honor, from others, whether it be or is, forever and ever, that is, always. "Amen" is a mark of confirmation.

You have, therefore, in sum, in the aforesaid salutation: the authority of the Apostle, by which he breaks their pride; the power of grace, by which he calls them to the observance of the Gospel; and the insufficiency of the legal precepts, that he may call them back from them.

Above, the greeting came first; in what follows, the epistolary narrative follows, in which the Apostle argues against their error. Second, he admonishes them to correction, in chapter 5, where he says stand fast therefore, and so on. Now he argues against their error in two ways: both through the authority of the evangelical teaching, and through the reasoning of the Old Testament, in chapter 3, where he says O foolish, and so on. He argues against their error, then, by showing the authority of the evangelical teaching. First by showing their own fickleness as regards the light dismissal of the evangelical teaching; second by commending the authority of that evangelical teaching itself, so that the more worthy what they are dismissing is shown to be, the greater their error appears — where he says for I make known to you, and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he aggravates the fault; second he inflicts the penalty, where he says but though we, and so on. Now he aggravates the fault both of those who are being led astray and of those who are leading them astray, where he says unless there are some, and so on.

Concerning the first he does three things. First he aggravates the fault of those being seduced from the fickleness of their mind. Hence he says I marvel — as if to say: since you know how many good things have been said to have come to you through Christ, and that although you were so well instructed by me, nevertheless so, that is, to such an extent and so vehemently, that you seem already to have forgotten, so soon, that is, in so short a time, you are removed — so as to play on the name; for Galatia is said to mean "removal" or "translation." As if to say: you are Galatians, because you are removed so quickly. Ecclesiasticus 19:4: he who believes quickly is light of heart.

Second, he aggravates their fault from that which they left. For if reason withdraws and is transferred away from evil, it is commendable and does well; but when it withdraws from the good, then it is culpable. And thus these men had been transferred away from the good. And therefore he says to them: and if it is to be marveled at that you are removed so quickly and thus, he nevertheless adds matter for wonder, namely that you are removed from him, that is, from God, and from his faith, who called you into the grace of Christ, that is, into participation in the eternal good, which we have through Christ. 1 Peter 2:9: giving thanks to God, who has called you into his wonderful light. Likewise 2 Peter 2:21: it would have been better for them not to have known the way of truth, than, and so on.

Third, he aggravates their fault from that to which they have been turned, because they have not been turned to the good, but to evil. Hence he says unto another gospel, that is, of the old law, which is a good annunciation insofar as it announces certain goods, namely temporal and carnal ones. Isaiah 1:9: if you be willing and will hearken to me, and so on. But nevertheless it is not perfect and simply so, as the Gospel is; because it does not announce perfect and greatest goods, but small and least ones. But the new law is perfectly and simply the Gospel, that is, a good annunciation, because it announces the greatest goods, namely heavenly, spiritual, and eternal ones. And although it be another gospel according to the tradition of the false apostles, nevertheless according to my preaching it is not. For it is other in its promises, but it is not other in its figure, because the same thing is contained in the Old Testament and in the New: in the Old indeed as in figure, in the New indeed as in the reality and expressly. And thus it is another gospel as regards those things which appear outwardly, but as regards those things which are within and are contained, it is not other. But although it is not other in itself, nevertheless it can become other through the fault of others, namely of those who are leading astray. And therefore, aggravating their fault, he says unless there are some, namely seducers, who trouble you, that is, who becloud the purity of your understanding, with which you had been imbued through the truth of the faith. Because, although the same thing is contained as regards the inner understanding through the Old and New Testament, as has been said, nevertheless if after the reception of the New Testament the Old is repeated, it seems to be shown that the New is not perfect, and that the one is other than the other. And therefore he says that it is not other, unless there are some, etc., because these false apostles, after the reception of the evangelical faith, were compelling them to be circumcised, showing through this that circumcision is something other than Baptism and effects something that Baptism cannot effect, and therefore these men are troubling you. Below, 5:12: I would that they were even cut off who trouble you, and so on. And they truly trouble you, because they wish to convert the Gospel of Christ, that is, the truth of the evangelical teaching into the figure of the law, which is absurd and the greatest disturbance. For a thing ought to be converted into that toward which it is ordered; but the New Testament and the Gospel of Christ is not ordered toward the Old, but rather on the contrary the old law is ordered toward the new law, as figure toward truth; and therefore the figure ought to be converted into the truth, and the old law into the Gospel of Christ, but not the truth into the figure, nor the Gospel of Christ into the old law: which is clear from the very usage of speech. For we do not say that a man is like the image of a man, but rather the other way around, the image is like the man. Jeremiah 15:9: they themselves shall be turned to thee, etc.; and Leviticus 26:10: new things coming upon you, and so on.

Consequently, after the aggravation of the fault, the infliction of the penalty is set down, when he says but though, and so on. And concerning this he does two things. First he promulgates the sentence; second he assigns the reason for the sentence, where he says for do I now persuade men, and so on.

Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows the authority of his sentence; second he pronounces it, where he says as I have said before, and so on. Now he shows that the authority of his sentence is great, in that it would have efficacy not only against perverters and against seducers who are subjects, but even against equals, such as the other apostles are, and even against superiors, such as the Angels are, if they were guilty of this crime, namely of converting the Gospel into the old law. And therefore he says: for the authority of our sentence which I promulgate (which is excommunication) has efficacy not only against those who intend such things, but though we, namely the apostles, or an angel, good or bad, coming from heaven should preach a gospel besides that which has been preached by us, let him be anathema, that is, he shall be guilty of this sentence, which we promulgate.

Now for the evidence of what has been said, three things must be inquired into. First, what this word "anathema" signifies. Concerning which it must be known that anathema is a Greek word, and it is compounded from ana, which is "up" or "upward," and thesis, "a positing," as it were "a placing on high." And it arose from a certain ancient custom. For the ancients, when they fought, would sometimes seize some plunder from the enemies, which they did not wish to convert to their own use, but they would hang it up in temples, or in some public place of the city, as it were set apart from the common use of men, and the Greeks called every such thing thus hung up anathema; and from this the custom grew up, that everything which was excluded from common use was said to be anathematized. Hence it is said in Joshua 6:17 concerning Jericho and all the things that are in it, that Joshua straightway anathematized them. And therefore this also grew up in the Church, that those who are excluded from the common fellowship of the Church, and from participation in the sacraments of the Church, are said to be anathematized.

Second, the reason must be inquired into of what he says though we or an angel, and so on. Here it must be known that there is a threefold teaching. The first is that of the philosophers, who by the guidance of their own reason arrived at the knowledge of their teaching. There is another teaching, which is handed down through Angels, as the old law is. For the law was not brought forth by human will (as is said at Galatians 3:19), but through Angels in the hand of a mediator, as is said below at 3:19. But there is a certain teaching handed down by God immediately, as the teaching of the Gospel is. John 1:18: no man hath seen God at any time, and so on. Hebrews 1:2: in these last days hath spoken to us by his Son. And afterward: which having received a beginning, and so on. Therefore the teaching which is handed down through a man can be changed and revoked through another man who knows better, just as one philosopher refutes the sayings of another; likewise through an Angel who sees the truth more keenly. Also the teaching which is handed down through an Angel could perhaps be removed through another, superior Angel, or through God. But on the other hand the teaching which is handed down immediately by God cannot be made void either through a man or through an Angel. And therefore if it should happen that a man or an Angel should say something contrary to that which has been handed down by God, his own statement is not against the teaching, so as through this to be made void and rejected, but rather the teaching is against him, because he who speaks it ought to be excluded and rejected from the communion of that teaching. And therefore the Apostle says that the dignity of the evangelical teaching, which is handed down immediately by God, is of such great dignity, that whether a man or an Angel should preach a gospel other than that which has been preached in it, he is anathema, that is, he is to be cast out and rejected.

Third, it is necessary to resolve the objections which occur concerning this. Of which one is: since an equal does not have authority over an equal, and much more does not have it over a superior, it seems that the Apostle could not excommunicate the apostles who were his equals, and still less the Angels who are superiors. Matthew 11:11: he that is the lesser in the kingdom of heaven is greater than he. Therefore it is not anathema through this. To this it must be said that the Apostle uttered this sentence, not by his own authority, but by the authority of the evangelical teaching, of which he was the minister, of which teaching the authority is such that whoever speak against it are to be excluded and rejected. John 10: the word that I have spoken, the same shall judge him in the last day, and so on.

Another question is, because he himself says besides that which has been preached. Therefore no one ought to teach, or to preach, except what is written in the epistles and in the Gospel. But this is false, because it is said at 1 Thessalonians 3:10: that we may accomplish those things that are wanting to your faith, and so on. I respond. It must be said that nothing else is to be preached as gospel, than that which is contained in the Gospels, and in the epistles, and in sacred Scripture, implicitly or explicitly. For sacred Scripture and the Gospel preach that Christ is to be believed in explicitly. Hence whatever is contained in them implicitly, which serves toward his teaching, and toward the faith of Christ, can be preached and taught. And therefore when he says besides that, etc., that is, adding something wholly foreign. Apocalypse, at the end: if any man shall add to these things, or shall add, namely something wholly foreign, God shall add unto him the plagues written in this book. And Deuteronomy 4: you shall not add anything, etc., namely contrary or foreign, neither shall you take away, and so on.

Consequently, when he says as I have said before, etc., he pronounces his sentence in respect of evil, saying: as I have said before concerning Angels and apostles, I say the same concerning the seducers. If any seducer shall preach a gospel besides that which you have received from me, let him be anathema, that is, excommunicated. And this is the sentence which he pronounces. But are all heretics excommunicated by this? It seems not, because it is said at Titus 3:10: a man that is a heretic, after the first and second admonition, avoid, and so on. I respond. It must be said that someone can be called a heretic either because he simply errs out of ignorance, and from this he is not excommunicated; or because he errs out of obstinacy and strives to pervert others, and then he incurs the canon of a sentence already passed. But whether from that time he pronounced sentence against heretics by these words is doubtful, since nevertheless sentence has already been passed against heretics in the Councils. It can nevertheless be said that perhaps here they are shown to be worthy of excommunication.

Consequently, when he says for do I now persuade men, etc., he shows the reason for the sentence. Here first he sets down the reason for the sentence itself; second he here makes clear his purpose, where he says or do I seek, and so on. For someone could say: why do you excommunicate in this way? Perhaps some are friends, or persons of some authority, therefore it ought not to be done thus. Therefore the Apostle, responding, says: nay rather, it ought to be done thus, because these things which I now say are not for the favor of men, but that I may please God, and this is what he says for do I now, that is, after my conversion, or in this epistle, persuade men, that is, does my desire tend to this, that I might please men, or God? As if to say: these things which I do, I do for this reason, that I may please God alone. 1 Thessalonians 2:4: we speak not as pleasing men, but God, and so on. Nor indeed do we speak by the authority of men, but by the divine authority. But that I do not intend to please men is clear from my intention and from my purpose. For I do not seek to please men, that is, it is not of my intention to convert men, that I may please men only, but for the honor of God. And this is clear, because if I still intended to please men, as I once pleased them, I should not be the servant of Christ. The reason for which is that these things are contrary to one another. To this extent, namely, that I should wish to please men for the sake of men, not referring that to God. For if I should intend at some time to please men for this reason, that I might draw them to God, I do not sin. But if in the first way, I am not the servant of Christ. Isaiah 28:20: the bed is straitened, so that one must fall out, and so on. Matthew 6:24: no man can serve two masters, and so on. Psalm 52:6: they are confounded that please men.

Above, the Apostle rebuked the Galatians for fickleness of mind, because they had so quickly abandoned the teaching of the Gospel; but here he shows the dignity of the evangelical teaching itself. And concerning this he does two things. For first he commends the authority of the evangelical teaching in itself; second, on the part of the other apostles, and his own together, in chapter 2, where it says "Then after fourteen years," etc. Again the first part is divided into two, for first he sets forth his intention; second he makes clear his proposal, where it says "For you have heard," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth what he intends; second he proves what he proposes, where it says "For neither," etc.

Intending, therefore, to commend the truth of the evangelical teaching, he says "I make known to you," etc., as if to say: I am so certain of the authority of the Gospel that I would not believe anything contrary not only from men but even from angels; rather, if they were contrary, I would anathematize them. And indeed I have this certitude from this, that God is to be believed more than men, or angels. And therefore, since I have had that Gospel from God, I ought to have and do have the greatest certitude. And therefore he says: "For I make known to you, brothers, the Gospel which was preached by me to you and to the other churches, that it is not according to man" — that is, according to human nature discordant from the rule or revelation of God. And thus the phrase "according to man" here sounds in the sense of a vice. 1 Corinthians 3:3: "For since there is among you jealousy and contention," etc. And thus the Apostle takes it here. And therefore he says "not according to man" teaching me or sending me: as if to say: in no way can this Gospel be had from man, but from God.

And therefore he adds "For neither did I from man," etc., where he excludes a twofold manner of receiving. First, that he did not have from man the authority of evangelizing, and as to this he says "neither from man" — namely, mere man — "did I receive it," that is, the authority of preaching the Gospel, but from Christ. Romans 10:15: "How shall they preach unless they be sent?" Isaiah 42:6: "I have given you as a light of the nations," etc. Acts 9:15: "This man is a vessel of election to me," etc. Second, that he did not receive the knowledge of evangelizing from man. And therefore he says "neither did I learn it" — namely, the Gospel — through a mere man, but "through the revelation of Jesus Christ," that is, through Jesus Christ showing all things clearly. 1 Corinthians 2:10: "But to us God has revealed," etc. Isaiah 50:5: "The Lord God has opened my ear," etc. And in the same place, 4: "The Lord has given me a learned tongue, that I should know," etc. But this revelation was made to the Apostle when he was caught up into Paradise, where he heard secret words which it is not lawful for a man to speak, 2 Corinthians 12:4.

Consequently, when he says "For you have heard," etc., he proves his proposition, namely that he did not receive the Gospel from man, neither before his conversion nor after his conversion to Christ, where it says "For when it pleased," etc. That he did not receive it from man before his conversion, he shows both through the hatred which he had for the faith of Christ and for Christians, and through the fervor which he had for Judaism, where it says "And I was advancing," etc.

He says therefore: I say that I did not receive it from man, and this before my conversion, which is clear from the deeds of that time, and from the hatred which I had toward the faith. For you yourselves have heard — below, in the same place: "but they had only heard," etc. — "my former manner of life," when I was an unbeliever, "in Judaism," in which I lived as a Jew. And he says "my," because whatever evil we do is from ourselves, but whatever good we do is from God. Hosea 13:9: "Your destruction is from you, O Israel; only in me is your help." This, namely, you have heard: "that beyond measure" — namely, beyond that of others — because not only by himself, but he provoked the rulers to this. For others, perhaps, being induced by the rulers, persecuted; but this man induced them. Acts 9:1: "Saul, still breathing out threats," etc., "went to," etc. And this not only in Jerusalem, but also through the whole region. Whence "he received letters to Damascus," etc. Whence that which is said in Genesis 49:27 can be understood of him: "Benjamin is a ravenous wolf," etc.

"I persecuted the Church of God," namely by seeking out Christians and putting them to flight. 1 Corinthians 15:9: "I am not worthy to be called an apostle," etc. "And I laid waste it" — not indeed spiritually, since he could not turn the hearts of the faithful away from the faith, but bodily, by afflicting them with bodily punishments, and by putting them in prison. Acts 9:21: "Is not this he who," etc. Psalm 128:1: "Often have they fought against me," etc. Thus therefore it is clear, through the hatred which he had for the faith of Christ before his conversion, that he did not receive the Gospel from man.

This is also clear through the love and fervor of zeal which he had for Judaism, and this as to outward advancement. Whence he says "and I advanced," etc., where he sets down three things which express the magnitude of his advancement: because "above many" — he advanced above many, not above few; not above old men unfit for advancement in knowledge, but "those of his own age," namely young men, sharp and apt for advancement. Lamentations 3:27: "It is good for a man when he has borne the yoke from his youth." Likewise not above those of his own age who were foreigners, as of an unknown tongue, but "those who are of my own race," namely of the Jews. Acts 22:3: "I am a Jewish man, educated at the feet of Gamaliel," etc. Likewise as to the interior zeal which he had for the law.

And therefore he says "being more abundantly a zealot than others" — not only of the law, but "of my paternal traditions," namely those which the Jews hold as lawful, which good fathers added, as is said in the Gloss; which traditions indeed he calls his own, because he so reckoned them, as if they had been his own. Philippians 3:5: "According to the law a Pharisee, according to zeal persecuting," etc.

But there is a question concerning what the Gloss says: "good fathers added." It seems that they were not good, because in Deuteronomy 4:2 it is said: "You shall not add to the word which I speak to you," etc. Therefore they acted against the commandment of the Lord, adding traditions, and thus they were not good. It must be said that this word of the Lord is to be understood thus: you shall not add anything contrary to, or foreign to, the words which I speak, etc. But to add certain things which are not contrary was lawful for them — namely, certain solemn days and other similar things, as was done in the time of Mordecai, and in the time of Judith, in memory of the benefits which they received from God. On the contrary, in Matthew 15:6, the Lord reproves them, saying: "You have made void the commandment of the Lord for the sake of the traditions of men." Therefore traditions are not lawful. I respond: it must be said that they are not reproved because they hold the traditions of men, but because on account of the traditions of men they abandon the commandments of God.

After the Apostle has shown that he himself did not receive the Gospel from man before his conversion, he now proves here that he did not receive it from man after his conversion either. And concerning this he does two things. First he shows that he did not receive the Gospel from man at the time of his conversion; second, that he did not receive it after his conversion either, at the place, then after three years, and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. For first he shows that he did not receive the Gospel from the apostles, nor was he taught by them; second, that he did not receive it from other believers either, at the place, but I went away into Arabia, and so on. Concerning the first he does three things. First he shows the efficient cause of his conversion; second, the end, at the place, that he might reveal, etc.; third, the manner, at the place, immediately I did not yield, and so on.

Concerning the first, he notes the cause of his conversion, which is twofold, namely the good pleasure of God, which is the divine election, and the calling of the one who converts him. As to the first he says when it pleased, namely God — not when I willed, but when it was pleasing to him, because it is not of him who wills nor of him who runs, etc., as is said in Romans 9:16. Psalm 146:11: the good pleasure is with the Lord, and so on. Philippians 2:13: it is God who works in us, and so on. Who, namely God, me — namely a rebel, 1 Corinthians 15:9: I am the least of the apostles, etc., because I persecuted, and so on; Acts 9:1: Saul still breathing threats, and so on — a persecutor: Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me, etc. — a blasphemer, 1 Timothy 1:13: who was a blasphemer, and so on. Me, such as I was, I say, he set apart from my mother's womb. Or according to the letter: who caused me to be born from my mother's belly. And it is truly said that God sets apart from the womb, although this is the work of nature, which is as it were the instrument of God, because our works too are attributed to God as to the principal author, Isaiah 26:12: for all our works you have wrought in us, etc., just as effects are also attributed to the principal agent. Hence it is said in Job 10:11: you have clothed me with skin and flesh, and so on. And from this womb he was set apart unto justification, because it belongs to the same one to justify to whom it belongs to create. Psalm 21:11: from my mother's womb, and so on.

Or: from my mother's womb, namely of the synagogue, whose womb is the college of the Pharisees, who nourished others in Judaism. Matthew 23:15: you go about sea and land to make, and so on. Thus, then, his mother was the synagogue. Song of Songs 1:5: the sons of my mother fought against me, and so on. Her womb is the Pharisees. From this womb, then, he was set apart through the Holy Spirit unto the faith of the Gospel. Romans 1:1: set apart unto the Gospel of God. Or his mother is the Church of Christ; her womb, the college of the apostles. God, then, set him apart from the womb of the Church, that is, from the college of the apostles, into the office of apostleship and preaching to the gentiles, when he said to the apostles, Acts 13:2: set apart for me Barnabas and Paul, and so on. Now he calls the synagogue his mother because he was a Pharisee, being as it were great in it, since it is said, a Pharisee, and of the Pharisees, because he was a zealot of the law. Above: but being more abundantly a zealot, and so on.

As to the other cause he says, and called, and so on. Now there is a twofold calling. One is exterior, and thus he says: he called me with a heavenly voice. Acts 9:4: Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? and so on. Go into the city, and so on. Thus he also called the other apostles. The other is interior, and thus he called through a certain interior instinct, by which God through grace touches the heart, that it may be converted to him, and thus he called him from the evil way into the good, and this through his grace, not by our merits. Romans 8:30: whom he predestined, these he also called, and so on. Isaiah 45:13: I have raised him up unto justice, and so on. Amos 5:8: who calls the waters of the sea, and so on.

Now the end of his conversion is set down when he says, that he might reveal his Son, etc., which end indeed is Christ. Now his conversion is ordered to Christ in two ways: namely by deed, and thus he says that he might reveal his Son, that is, in that which he did concerning me, converting me and forgiving me my sins, he might reveal how great a mercy had been done to me. 1 Timothy 1:15ff: Christ Jesus came into this world to save sinners, and so on. But I obtained the mercy of God because ignorant, and so on. Thus, then, he revealed his Son in his conversion, and this insofar as the Son is called the grace of God. Likewise he revealed him in his working; whence he himself said, Romans 15:18: for I do not dare to speak of any of those things which Christ has not wrought through me unto the obedience of the gentiles, in word, in deeds, and in power, and so on. And this insofar as the Son is the power of God. Likewise he revealed him in his preaching; whence he himself said, 1 Corinthians 1:23: we preach, etc., down to and the wisdom of God. And this insofar as his Son is called the wisdom of God. Likewise his conversion is ordered to Christ by word, and thus he says that I might preach him among the gentiles, because, while the other apostles were preaching Christ to the Jews, Paul, by the command of the Lord, went to the gentiles to convert them. Isaiah 49:6: for it is a small thing that you should be my servant, etc., I have given you as a light, and so on. Acts 13:47: for thus he has commanded, and so on. Below: behold I have given him as a witness to the peoples, a leader and teacher to the gentiles.

Now the manner of his conversion is perfect, both as to its effect; whence he says immediately I did not yield to flesh and blood, that is, at once I was so perfectly converted that every carnal affection withdrew from me. Ecclesiasticus 11:23: for it is easy in the eyes of the Lord suddenly to enrich the poor man. And here flesh and blood is taken for carnal vices. 1 Corinthians 15:50: flesh and blood shall not possess the kingdom of God, and so on. Below, 5:17: the flesh lusts, and so on. Or for the affection and love toward those carnally joined to oneself. Matthew 16:17: flesh and blood has not revealed it to you, and so on. Thus the Apostle both overcame his own vices and despised his own Jews.

Likewise as to the intellect; because he was so instructed by Christ that it was not necessary for him to be instructed by the apostles. And therefore he says, nor did I go to Jerusalem, namely so as to be instructed by them. Likewise it was not necessary for him to be instructed by other believers. And therefore he says, but I went away into Arabia, etc., as if to say: I did not go to places where other believers were, so that they might instruct me, but I went into Arabia, where there were none instructed in the faith, but unbelievers. And again I returned to Damascus, namely to my kinsfolk. Job 38:25: who has given a course to the most violent rain shower, and so on. But against this it is said in Acts 9:25 that they let him down from the wall in a basket, and so on. And when he had come to Jerusalem, he tried to join himself to the disciples. He came, then, to Jerusalem. It must be said that he came, but not so as to be instructed. Or, better, it must be said that he did not come at once, but after some time, and therefore there follows, then after years, and so on.

After the Apostle has above shown that he did not receive the Gospel from man before his conversion, nor at the time of his conversion, here he proves that he did not receive it from man even after his conversion; rather, here he shows how his teaching was approved by men. And concerning this he does two things. First, he shows how his teaching was approved by the apostles; second, he shows how it was approved by the other faithful, at the place then I came into the regions, etc. And first he narrates the fact; second he confirms the truth of what he has said, at the place behold, before God, etc.

He says therefore: although I did not go to the apostles in order to be instructed by them concerning the beginning of my conversion, since I was already instructed by Christ, nevertheless, driven by an affection of charity, after three years — namely, of my conversion — I came to Jerusalem, since I had for a long time desired to see Peter, not in order to learn from him, but in order to visit him. Job 5:24: "visiting your beauty," etc. And I remained with him fifteen days, being found by him to be a truthful apostle. And he says fifteen days, because this number is composed of eight and seven. Now the number eight is the number of the New Testament, in which the eighth day of those who rise again is awaited; while the number seven is the number of the Old Testament, because it celebrates the seventh day. He remained with Peter fifteen days, conferring with him about the mysteries of the Old and New Testament.

And lest it be believed that, although he was not instructed by Peter, he was nevertheless instructed by others, he adds that he was not instructed by others either. Hence he says but of the other apostles I saw none, that is, no one, by whom I might have been instructed, except James the brother of the Lord. For he saw him in Jerusalem.

Concerning this James it should be known that he was bishop of Jerusalem, and was called James the Less, because he had been called after the other James. Many things are said about him at Acts 15:13ff. He also wrote a canonical epistle. But why he is called the brother of the Lord is said differently by different people.

For Helvidius says that he is called brother of the Lord for this reason, that he was the son of the Blessed Virgin. For he says that the Blessed Virgin conceived and bore Christ, and after the birth of Christ conceived by Joseph, and bore other sons. But this error has been condemned and rejected. Likewise it is plainly false, because James was not the son of Joseph, but of Alphaeus.

Others, however, say that Joseph, before the Blessed Virgin, had another wife, from whom he had a son James and others, and when she died, he took the Blessed Virgin as wife, from whom Christ was born, yet not known by Joseph, but by the Holy Spirit, as is said in the Gospel. Because, then, kinships are named from the father, and Joseph was thought to be the father of Christ, therefore this James, although he was not the son of the Virgin, was nevertheless called brother of the Lord. But this is false, because if the Lord did not wish his mother, a virgin, to be entrusted to the keeping of anyone but a virgin, how would he have permitted her spouse not to have been a virgin, and to have remained so?

Therefore others say, and it is touched on in the Gloss, that this James was the son of Mary of Cleophas, who was the sister of the Virgin. For they say that Anna, the mother of the Blessed Virgin, married first Joachim, from whom she bore Mary, the mother of the Lord; when he died, she married Cleophas, the brother of Joachim, from whom she bore Mary of Cleophas, and from her was born James the Less, Jude, and Simon; when he died, it is said that she then married a certain third man, who was called Salome, from whom she conceived and bore another Mary, who was called Salome, and from her was born James the Greater, and John, his brother.

But Jerome contradicts this opinion in two ways. First, because Salome is not the name of a man, as also appears in the Greek, but is the name of a woman, who was the sister of the Blessed Virgin, and by Zebedee bore James the Greater and John, just as Mary of Cleophas by Alphaeus bore James the Less, Jude, and Simon.

Now this James is called brother of the Lord specially among his other cousins, and this for two reasons: first, on account of a likeness of appearance, because he was like Christ in face; and on account of a likeness of life, because he imitated Christ in his ways. Or because Alphaeus his father was of the kinship of Joseph; and therefore, since the Jews were accustomed to trace the line of kinship from the males, and Christ was thought to be the son of Joseph, as is said in Luke 3:23, therefore he in particular was called brother of the Lord, and not the others, who were joined to him only through the mother.

Here, however, "brother" is taken in the sense of kinship. For in Scripture "brothers" are sometimes said by nature. Matthew 1:2: "and Jacob begot Judah and his brothers." By kinship, as all blood relations are brothers. Genesis 13:8: "let there be no quarrel, I beg, between me and you, for we are brothers." By people, and thus all of one language are called brothers. Deuteronomy 17:15: "you may not set a man of another people as king, who is not your brother." By affection, and thus all friends, and those who have the same affection, are called brothers. 2 Corinthians 2:13: "because I did not find Titus my brother," etc. By religion, and thus all Christians who have one rule of life are called brothers. Matthew 23:8: "you are brothers," etc. Psalm 132:1: "behold how good and how pleasant it is for brothers to dwell together," etc. And commonly all men are called brothers, because they are governed and brought up by the one God. Malachi 2:10: "have we not all one father," etc.

Next, when he says but the things that I write to you, etc., he confirms by an oath what he had said, as if to say: these things which I now write to you about myself, behold, they are in the open, so that it is sufficiently established that I do not lie. And this I say, before God, that is, with God as witness. Now the Apostle swears here not out of levity, but out of the necessity of those for whom it was necessary that they believe. For unless he did this, they would not believe him. 2 Corinthians 2:17: "before God, in Christ, we speak." Romans 1:9: "God is my witness," etc.

What, then, does the Lord say: "let your speech be, yes, yes; no, no; what is more than this is from evil"? It must be said that it is from the evil of him who does not believe, or from the evil of the punishment by which someone is compelled to swear.

Next, when he says then I came, etc., he shows how he was approved by the other churches of Judea. Here he does three things. First he shows where he stayed, namely, in Cilicia. Hence he says then I came into the regions of Syria and Cilicia, namely, of his homeland; whence also he had been carried off — for it is said at Acts 22:3: "now Paul was from Tarsus of Cilicia," etc.

Second, how he was known by them, namely, not by face, but only by hearing and report. Hence he says for I was unknown by face to the churches of Judea that were in Christ, that is, in the faith of Christ. 2 Corinthians 6:8: "as unknown, and known." Whence it is clear that the churches of Judea did not teach me. For they had only heard, namely, of me by report, that he who persecuted, etc.

Third, how he was approved by them, because they glorified God in me, that is, in my conversion they approved as great him who by his grace converted me. Isaiah 43:20: "the beast shall glorify me," etc.