Commentary on Romans (Super Epistolam B. Pauli ad Romanos Lectura)

"He is a vessel of election to me," and so forth (Acts 9:15). Men are found in Sacred Scripture compared to vessels on account of four things, namely: on account of their constitution, their filling, their use, and their fruit.

First, then, as to constitution. For a vessel is subject to the will of the craftsman. Jeremiah 18:4: "He made it another vessel, as it pleased him." So too the constitution of men is subject to the will of God, concerning which it is said in Psalm 99:3: "He made us, and not we ourselves." Hence Isaiah 45:9 says: "Shall the clay say to its potter, What are you doing?" And further on, Romans 9:20: "Shall the thing formed say to him who formed it, Why have you made me thus?" And hence it is that, according to the will of God the craftsman, a diverse constitution of vessels is found. 1 Timothy 2:20: "But in a great house there are not only vessels of gold and silver, but also of wood and of earth." Now blessed Paul, since he is named a vessel of election in the words set before us, what sort of vessel he was is clear from what is said in Ecclesiasticus 50:10: "like a solid vessel of gold, adorned with every precious stone." It was indeed a golden vessel on account of the brightness of wisdom, concerning which can be understood what is said in Genesis 2:12: "and the gold of that land is the best," because, as is said in Proverbs 3:15, it is "more precious than all riches." Hence also blessed Peter bears witness to him, saying, 1 Peter 3:15: "as also our most beloved brother Paul, according to the wisdom given to him, has written to you." It was solid indeed by the power of charity, concerning which it is said in the last chapter of the Canticle: "love is strong as death." Hence he himself also says, Romans 8:38f: "For I am certain that neither death nor life," etc., "will be able to separate us from the charity of God." But it was adorned with every precious stone, namely with all the virtues, concerning which it is said in 1 Corinthians 3:12: "if anyone builds upon this foundation gold, silver, precious stones," and so forth. Hence he himself also says, 2 Corinthians 1:12: "This is our glory, the testimony of our conscience, that in simplicity of heart and in the sincerity of God, and not in carnal wisdom, but in the grace of God, we have conducted ourselves in this world." What sort of vessel this was is clear from the fact that he dispensed such things: for he taught the mysteries of the most excellent divinity, which pertain to wisdom, as is clear in 1 Corinthians 2:6: "we speak wisdom among the perfect"; he also commended charity most excellently, in 1 Corinthians 13; he instructed men concerning the diverse virtues, as is clear in Colossians 3:12: "put on, as the elect of God, holy and beloved, a heart of mercy," and so forth.

Second, it also seems to pertain to vessels that they be filled with some liquid, according to that text in 4 Kings 4:5: "they offered the vessels, and she poured out." There is also found among vessels a diversity as to this kind of fullness. For some vessels are found to be of wine, some of oil, and various ones of various kinds. So too men are divinely filled with diverse graces, as it were with diverse liquids, 1 Corinthians 12:8: "to one is given through the Spirit the word of wisdom, to another," and so forth. But this vessel, of which we now treat, was full of a precious liquid, namely the name of Christ, concerning which it is said in Canticle 1:2: "your name is oil poured out." Hence it is said of him, "that he may carry my name." For he seems to have been wholly full of this name, according to that text in Apocalypse 3:12: "I will write upon him my name." For he had this name in the knowledge of his intellect, according to that in 1 Corinthians 2:2: "for I did not judge that I knew anything among you except Christ." He also had this name in the love of his affection, according to that in Romans 8:35: "who shall separate us from the charity of Christ?" And 1 Corinthians, last chapter: "if anyone does not love our Lord Jesus Christ, let him be anathema." He also had it in the whole conduct of his life. Hence he said in Galatians 2:20: "and I live, now not I, but Christ lives in me."

Third, as to use, it must be considered that all vessels are appointed to some use, but some to a more honorable one, some to a baser one, according to that in Romans 9:21: "or does the potter of clay not have power, from the same mass, to make one vessel indeed unto honor, but another unto dishonor?" So too men, according to the divine ordination, are appointed to diverse uses, according to that in Ecclesiasticus 33:10-11: "All men are from the ground, and out of the earth, from which Adam was created. In the fullness of his knowledge the Lord distinguished them, and diversified their ways. Some of them he blessed and exalted, and some he cursed and brought low." But this vessel was appointed to a noble use, for it is a vessel that carries the divine name; for it is said, "that he may carry my name," which name indeed needed to be carried because it was far from men, according to that in Isaiah 30:27: "behold, the name of the Lord comes from afar." Now it is far from us on account of sin, according to Psalm 118:155: "salvation is far from sinners." It is also far from us on account of the obscurity of the intellect, whence it is also said of certain persons, Hebrews 11:13, that they were "beholding from afar," and in Numbers 24:17 it is said: "I shall see him, but not now; I shall behold him, but not near." And therefore, just as the angels bring divine illuminations to us, as being distant from God, so the apostles brought the evangelical doctrine from Christ to us. And just as in the Old Testament, after the law of Moses, the prophets are read, who handed down the doctrine of the law to the people, according to that in Malachi 4:4: "remember the law of Moses my servant" — so too in the New Testament, after the Gospel, the doctrine of the apostles is read, who handed down to the faithful what they had heard from the Lord, according to that in 1 Corinthians 11:23: "I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you."

Now blessed Paul carried the name of Christ: first, indeed, in the body, by imitating his conduct and passion, according to that in Galatians, last chapter: "for I bear the marks of the Lord Jesus in my body." Second, in the mouth, which is clear from the fact that in his epistles he most frequently names Christ: "for out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaks," as is said in Matthew 12:34. Hence he can be signified by the dove, of which it is said, Genesis 8:11, that it came to the ark carrying an olive branch in its mouth. For since the olive signifies mercy, fittingly by the olive branch is understood the name of Jesus Christ, which likewise signifies mercy, according to that in Matthew 1:21: "you shall call his name Jesus, for he shall save his people from their sins." And he brought this branch, with its leaves green, to the ark — namely, the Church — when he set forth its power and meaning in many ways, showing forth the grace and mercy of Christ. Hence he says, 1 Timothy 1:16: "for this reason I obtained mercy, that in me first Jesus Christ might show forth all patience." And hence it is that, just as among the Scriptures of the Old Testament the Psalms of David, who obtained pardon after sin, are most frequently used in the Church, so in the New Testament the epistles of Paul, who obtained mercy, are frequently used, so that from this sinners might be raised up to hope; although there could also be another reason, namely that in both Scriptures almost the whole doctrine of theology is contained. Third, he carried it not only to those present but also to the absent and to those to come, by handing down the sense of Scripture, according to that in Isaiah 8:1: "take to yourself a great book, and write in it with a man's pen."

Now in this office of carrying the name of God, his excellence is shown as to three things. First, as to the grace of election, whence he is called "a vessel of election." Ephesians 1:4: "he chose us in Christ before the foundation of the world." Second, as to fidelity, because he sought nothing of his own but Christ's, according to that in 2 Corinthians 4:5: "for we do not preach ourselves, but Christ Jesus." Hence he says: "he is a vessel of election to me." Third, as to singular excellence, whence he himself says, 1 Corinthians 15:10: "I have labored more abundantly than all of them." Hence he says pointedly, "he is a vessel of election to me," as it were singularly above the others.

As to fruit, it must be considered that some are, as it were, useless vessels, either on account of sin or on account of error, according to that in Jeremiah 51:34: "he has made me like an empty vessel." But blessed Paul was pure of sin and of error, hence he was a vessel of election that was useful, according to that in 2 Timothy 2:21: "if anyone cleanses himself from these," namely errors and sins, "he shall be a vessel unto honor, sanctified, useful to the Lord." Hence the usefulness or fruit of this vessel is expressed when it is said, "before the Gentiles," whose teacher he was, according to that in 1 Timothy 2:7: "a teacher of the Gentiles in faith and truth"; "and kings," to whom he announced the faith of Christ, as to Agrippa, as is found in Acts 16:38, and also to Nero and his princes; hence it is said in Philippians 1:12-13: "the things that have happened to me have turned out rather to the advancement of the Gospel, so that my bonds became manifest in Christ in the whole praetorium"; Isaiah 49:7: "kings shall see, and princes shall arise." And "to the children of Israel," against whom he disputed concerning Christ, Acts 9:22: "But Saul increased much more in strength, and confounded the Jews who dwelt at Damascus, affirming that this is the Christ."

Thus, therefore, from the words set forth above we can grasp the four causes of this work, namely of the epistles of Paul, which we have at hand. First, indeed, the author, in the vessel. Second, the matter, in the name of Christ, which is the fullness of the vessel, because this whole doctrine is about the doctrine of Christ. Third, the mode, in the use of carrying; for this doctrine is handed down by way of epistles, which were customarily carried by messengers, according to that in 2 Chronicles 30:6: "the couriers went forth with letters from the royal command," and so forth. Fourth, the distinction of the work, in the aforesaid usefulness. For he wrote fourteen epistles, of which nine instruct the Church of the Gentiles; four, the prelates and princes of the Church, that is, kings; one, the people of Israel, namely the one which is to the Hebrews.

For this doctrine is wholly about the grace of Christ, which indeed can be considered in three ways. In one way, according as it is in the head himself, namely Christ, and thus it is commended in the epistle to the Hebrews. In another way, according as it is in the principal members of the mystical body, and thus it is commended in the epistles which are to the prelates. Third, according as it is in the mystical body itself, which is the Church, and thus it is commended in the epistles which are sent to the Gentiles, whose distinction is this: for the grace of Christ itself can be considered in three ways. In one way according to itself, and thus it is commended in the epistle to the Romans; in another way according as it is in the sacraments of grace, and thus it is commended in the two epistles to the Corinthians, in the first of which the sacraments themselves are treated, in the second the dignity of the ministers, and in the epistle to the Galatians, in which superfluous sacraments are excluded, against those who wished to join the old sacraments to the new; third, the grace of Christ is considered according to the effect of unity which it produced in the Church.

The Apostle, therefore, treats, first, of the institution of ecclesiastical unity in the epistle to the Ephesians; second, of its confirmation and advancement in the epistle to the Philippians; third, of its defense — against errors, indeed, in the epistle to the Colossians; against present persecutions, in the first to the Thessalonians; and against future persecutions, and especially in the time of Antichrist, in the second. But he instructs the prelates of the Churches, both spiritual and temporal. The spiritual, indeed, concerning the institution, instruction, and governance of ecclesiastical unity, in the first to Timothy; concerning firmness against persecutors, in the second; third, concerning defense against heretics, in the epistle to Titus. But the temporal lords he instructs in the epistle to Philemon. And thus the reason for the distinction and order of all the epistles is clear.

But it seems that the epistle to the Romans is not first. For he seems to have written earlier to the Corinthians, according to that in Romans, last chapter: "and I commend to you Phoebe, our sister, who is in the ministry of the church which is at Cenchreae," where the port of the Corinthians is. But it must be said that the epistle to the Corinthians is prior in the time of its writing. But the epistle to the Romans is placed first, both on account of the dignity of the Romans, who ruled over the other nations — because here pride, which is "the beginning of all sin," as is said in Ecclesiasticus 10:14, was refuted — and also because the order of doctrine requires this, that grace be considered first in itself before it is considered as it is in the sacraments.

Again, it is asked from where the Apostle wrote this epistle. Augustine says that it was from Athens; Jerome, that it was from Corinth. Nor is there a contradiction, because perhaps he began to write it at Athens but finished it at Corinth.

Again, an objection is raised against what is said in the Gloss, that certain of the faithful preached to the Romans before Peter. But in the Ecclesiastical History it is said that Peter was the first to preach to them. But it must be understood: first among the apostles, and with a following of great fruit. For before this, Barnabas had preached at Rome, as is found in the Itinerary of Clement.

After the Apostle rendered the faithful Romans, to whom he was writing, well disposed toward himself by showing his affection for them, here he begins to instruct them concerning those things which pertain to the evangelical teaching, unto which he had foretold that he was set apart. And first he shows the power of the grace of the gospel; second, he exhorts to the carrying out of the works of this grace, in chapter twelve, at the words "I beseech you therefore." Concerning the first he does two things: first he sets forth what he intends, second he explains what he has proposed, at the words "for it is revealed." Concerning the first he does three things: first he sets forth the power of the grace of the gospel, second he explains it at the words "for the justice," third he confirms his explanation at the words "as it is written." He says therefore first: I am not ashamed of the gospel for this reason, that although, as it is said in 1 Corinthians 1:18, the word of the cross is indeed foolishness to those who perish, yet to us it is the power of God. For it is the power of God. This can be understood in two ways: in one way, because the power of God is manifested in the gospel, according to that word of Psalm 110:6: "He has declared to his people the power of his works"; in another way, because the gospel itself in itself contains the power of God, according to that word of Psalm 68:34: "He will give to his voice the voice of power." Concerning this power three things are to be considered. First indeed, to what this power extends, and this is designated when it is added, "unto salvation." James 1:21: "With meekness receive the engrafted word, which is able to save your souls." This indeed comes about in three ways: in one way, insofar as through the word of the gospel sins are remitted; John 15:3: "Now you are clean because of the word which I have spoken to you." Second, insofar as through the gospel man attains sanctifying grace; John 17:17: "Sanctify them in truth. Your word is truth." Third, insofar as it leads to eternal life; John 6:69: "You have the words of eternal life." Second, by what manner the gospel confers salvation, namely through faith, which is designated when it says "to everyone that believeth." This happens in three ways: first through preaching; Mark, last chapter: "Preach the gospel to every creature; he who believes and is baptized shall be saved." Second through confession; below, 10:10: "with the mouth confession is made unto salvation." Third through Scripture, whence also the written words of the gospel have a saving power, just as blessed Barnabas used to cure the sick by placing the gospel upon them. Yet superstitions of characters are to be avoided, because this is superstitious. Whence, Ezekiel 9:6, those were saved on whose foreheads was written the Tau, which is the sign of the cross. Third, to whom the gospel becomes unto salvation, namely both to Jews and to Gentiles. For God is not the God of the Jews only but also of the Gentiles, below, 3:29, and therefore he adds "to the Jew first, and to the Greek." By "Greek" he means every gentile, because from the Greeks the wisdom of the gentiles arose. But since below, 10:12, it is said "there is no distinction between the Jew and the Greek," how then here "to the Jew first"? It must be said, therefore, that as regards the attaining of the end of salvation there is no distinction between them, for both obtain an equal reward, just as for labor even in the vineyard, both the first and the last received the same denarius, as is said in Matthew 20:1-16. But as regards the order of salvation the Jews are first, because to them the promises were made, as below, 3:2, and it is for their sake that the Gentiles were taken in, as if a branch of a wild olive were grafted onto a good olive tree, as below, 11:24. From them too our Savior was born. John 4:22: "Salvation is from the Jews."

He then explains next how the gospel is unto salvation when he says, "for the justice of God is revealed therein from faith to faith." This indeed can be understood in two ways. In one way, of the justice by which God is just, according to that word of Psalm 10:8 (Hebrew numbering, i.e. 11:7): "The Lord is just, and he loves justice." And according to this, the sense is that the justice of God, namely by which he is just in keeping his promises, is revealed in it, namely in the man who believes the gospel, because he believes that God has fulfilled what he promised concerning the sending of Christ; and this "from faith," namely of God who promises, Psalm 144:13: "The Lord is faithful in all his words." "Unto faith," namely of the man who believes. Or, in another way, so that it be understood of the justice of God by which God justifies men. For the justice of men is called that by which men, by their own powers, presume to justify themselves, below, 10:3: "not knowing the justice of God, and seeking to establish their own, they are not subject to the justice of God." This justice indeed is revealed in the gospel, insofar as through the faith of the gospel men are justified at whatever time; whence he adds "from faith unto faith," that is, proceeding from the faith of the Old Testament into the faith of the New Testament, because by both men are justified and saved through the faith of Christ, since by the same faith they believed he would come by which we believe he has come; and therefore it is said in 2 Corinthians 4:13: "having the same spirit of faith, we believe, and therefore we speak also." Or it can be understood as from the faith of the preachers into the faith of the hearers, below, 10:14: "how shall they believe him of whom they have not heard?" Or from the faith of one article into the faith of another, because for justification the faith of all the articles is required. Revelation 1:3: "Blessed is he who reads and hears the words of this prophecy." In another way it can be understood as from present faith into future faith, that is, into the full vision of God, which indeed is called faith by reason of certain and firm knowledge, but this latter by reason of evangelical knowledge. 1 Corinthians 13:12: "We see now through a glass in a dark manner, but then face to face." He proves this explanation, moreover, when he adds, "as it is written, but my just man liveth by faith." This indeed is taken according to the text of the Septuagint. For in our text, which follows the Hebrew truth, it is said, "the just man liveth by his faith." Now he is called "my just man," namely, one justified by me and reckoned just before me, below, 4:2: "for if Abraham was justified by the works of the law, he has glory, but not before God. For what does the Scripture say? Abraham believed God, and it was reputed to him unto justice." Whence from this it is added, "he liveth by faith," namely by the life of grace. Galatians 2:20: "but that I now live in the flesh, I live in the faith of the Son of God."

Now four things must be considered here concerning faith. First indeed, what faith is. For it implies a certain assent with certainty, to that which is not seen, arising from the will, because no one believes except willingly, as Augustine says. And according to this, the believer differs from the doubter, who assents to neither side; he also differs from the one who holds an opinion, who assents to one side, not with certainty but with fear of the other; he also differs from the one who has knowledge, who assents through certainty by the necessity of reason. And according to this, faith is a mean between knowledge and opinion. Second, it must be considered whether faith is a virtue. And it is manifest that it is not a virtue if it is taken for that which is believed, according to that saying, "the Catholic faith is this, that we worship one God in Trinity." But if it is taken for the habit by which we believe, then sometimes it is a virtue, sometimes not. For a virtue is the principle of a perfect act. Now an act which depends on two principles cannot be perfect if the perfection proper to either of the principles is lacking: just as horsemanship cannot be perfect if either the horse does not go well, or the rider does not know how to guide the horse. Now the act of faith, which is to believe, depends on the intellect and on the will moving the intellect to assent; whence the act of faith will be perfect if the will is perfected through the habit of charity and the intellect through the habit of faith, but not if the habit of charity is lacking; and therefore faith formed by charity is a virtue, but unformed faith is not. Third, it must be considered that the very same habit of faith, in number, which was unformed without charity, becomes a virtue when charity comes; because, since charity is outside the essence of faith, its substance is not changed by charity's coming and going. Fourth, it must be considered that just as the body lives by the soul with natural life, so the soul lives by God with the life of grace. Now God first dwells in the soul through faith, Ephesians 3:17: "that Christ may dwell through faith in your hearts." Yet this indwelling is not perfect unless faith is formed by charity, which unites us to God by the bond of perfection, as is said in Colossians 3:14. And therefore, what is said here, "he liveth by faith," is to be understood of faith formed by charity.

Then, when he says, "for the wrath of God is revealed," he proves what he had said, namely that the power of the grace of the gospel is unto salvation for all men. And first he shows that it is necessary unto salvation; second, that it is efficacious or sufficient, in chapter five, at the words "being justified therefore by faith." Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows that the power of the grace of the gospel is necessary unto salvation for the gentiles, because namely the wisdom in which they trusted could not save them; second he shows that it was necessary for the Jews, because namely circumcision and the law and the other things in which they trusted did not bring them salvation, chapter two, at the words "wherefore thou art inexcusable." Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth what he intends; second he explains what he has proposed, at the words "because that which is known of God." Now he sets forth three things. First indeed the penalty, saying: rightly do I say that in it the justice of God is revealed, for the wrath of God is revealed in it, that is, his vengeance, which is called the wrath of God by a likeness to men who are angry and who seek vengeance outside themselves. Yet God inflicts vengeance out of the tranquility of his mind. Wisdom 12:18: "But thou, our Lord, judgest with tranquility." And concerning this wrath of God it is said in John 3:36: "he who does not believe the Son shall not see life, but the wrath of God abideth on him." Now this is said because certain philosophers used to say that punishments for sins do not come from God, contrary to what is said in Psalm 93:10: "he who chastises the nations, shall he not rebuke?" Whence it is added "from heaven," because they believed that his providence was occupied with heavenly things, in such a way that it did not extend to earthly things. Job 22:14: "he walks about the poles of heaven, and does not consider our affairs." But, as it is said in Psalm 101:20 (i.e. 102:19), "the Lord hath looked down from heaven upon the earth." Or it is said "from heaven" to show their iniquity, because they ought especially from the greatness of the heavens to have understood the power of the creator. Job 20:27: "the heavens shall reveal his iniquity." Or "from heaven," of the one who is to come to judgment. Acts 1:11: "as you have seen him ascending into heaven, so shall he come." Second, he sets down the fault for which the penalty is inflicted. And first indeed the fault which is committed against God, when he adds "against all ungodliness." For just as piety is called the worship which is rendered to God as to the highest parent, so ungodliness is called the sin which is against divine worship. Ezekiel 18:28 (Vulgate numbering): "the wickedness of the wicked shall be upon him." Second, he sets down the fault which is committed toward man, when he says "and injustice." For justice is that by which men come together and share with one another by reason. Job 35:8: "thy justice shall help the son of man." Third, he sets down the knowledge which they had of him, when he adds, "of those men who detain the truth of God," that is, the true knowledge of God, "in injustice," as if held captive. For the true knowledge of God, as far as it is in itself, leads men to good, but it is bound, as if detained in captivity, by the affection of injustice, through which, as Psalm 11:1 (i.e. 12:1) says, "truths are diminished from the sons of men."

Then, when he says "because that which is known," he explains what he has proposed, though in reverse order. For first he grants that the wise among the gentiles knew the truth about God; second, he shows that ungodliness and injustice were in them, at the words "so that they are inexcusable"; third, that they incurred the wrath of God, at the words "who, when they knew the justice of God." Concerning the first he does three things. First, what they knew about God; second, he shows from whom they received this kind of knowledge, at the words "for God hath manifested it to them"; third, he shows by what manner, at the words "for the invisible things." He says therefore first: rightly do I say that they detained the truth of God, for there was in them, as regards a certain measure, a true knowledge of God, because "that which is known of God," that is, what is knowable about God by man through reason, "is manifest in them," that is, it is manifest to them from that which is in them, that is, from an intrinsic light. It must be known, therefore, that something concerning God is altogether unknown to man in this life, namely what God is. Whence Paul also found at Athens an altar inscribed: "To the unknown God." And this is so because man's knowledge begins from those things which are connatural to him, namely sensible creatures, which are not proportioned to represent the divine essence. Nevertheless man can, from creatures of this kind, know God in three ways, as Dionysius says in the book On the Divine Names. In one way indeed through causality. For since creatures of this kind are defectible and mutable, they must necessarily be traced back to some immovable and perfect principle. And according to this it is known concerning God that he is. Second, by way of excellence. For not all things are traced back to the first principle as to a proper and univocal cause, as when a man begets a man, but as to a common and surpassing cause. And from this it is known that he is above all things. Third, by way of negation. For if he is a surpassing cause, none of the things which are in creatures can belong properly to him, just as neither is a celestial body properly said to be heavy or light or hot or cold. And according to this we say that God is immovable and infinite and whatever else is said of this kind. Now they had this kind of knowledge through the light of reason implanted in them. Psalm 4:6: "Many say, who showeth us good things? The light of thy countenance, O Lord, is signed upon us." Then, when he says "God hath manifested it to them," he shows by what author this kind of knowledge was manifested to them, and he says that "God hath manifested it to them," according to that saying of Job 35:11: "he teacheth us more than the beasts of the earth." Here it must be considered that one man manifests something to another by unfolding his own conception through certain external signs, for instance through speech or writing, but God manifests something to man in two ways. In one way, by pouring in an interior light, through which man knows, Psalm 42:3: "send forth thy light and thy truth." In another way, by setting forth the exterior signs of his own wisdom, namely sensible creatures. Ecclesiasticus 1:10: "he poured her out," namely wisdom, "upon all his works." Thus, therefore, God manifested it to them, either by pouring in light interiorly, or by setting forth visible creatures exteriorly, in which, as in a certain book, the knowledge of God might be read. Then, when he says "for the invisible things of him, from the creation of the world," etc., he shows by what manner they received this kind of knowledge. Here, first it must be considered what these things are, which they knew about God. And he sets down three. First indeed "the invisible things of him," by which is understood the essence of God, which, as has been said, cannot be seen by us. John 1:18: "no man hath seen God at any time," namely through essence, while living this mortal life. 1 Timothy 1:17: "to the king of ages, immortal, invisible." Now he says "invisible things" in the plural because the essence of God is not known to us according to what it is, namely as it is one in itself. Thus it will be known to us in our homeland, and then "the Lord shall be one, and his name one," as is said in Zechariah, last chapter. But it is manifest to us through certain likenesses found in creatures, which participate in a manifold way in that which is one in God, and according to this our intellect considers the unity of the divine essence under the aspect of goodness, wisdom, power, and the like, which in God are one. He called these therefore "the invisible things of God," because that one thing which corresponds in God to these names, or aspects, is not seen by us. Hebrews 11:3: "that from things invisible, invisible things might be made." Another thing, moreover, which is known about God is "his power," according to which things proceed from him as from a principle; Psalm 146:5 (i.e. 147:5): "great is the Lord, and great is his power." Now the philosophers knew that this power was everlasting, whence it is said "his eternal power also." The third thing known is what he calls "and divinity," to which pertains the fact that they knew God as the ultimate end, toward which all things tend. For the divine good is called the common good which is participated in by all; for this reason he said rather "divinity," which signifies participation, than "deity," which signifies the essence of God. Colossians 2:9: "and in him dwelleth all the fullness of the divinity." Now these three are referred to the three aforesaid ways of knowing. For the invisible things of God are known by way of negation; the eternal power, by way of causality; the divinity, by way of excellence. Second, it must be considered by what medium they knew those things, which is designated when he says "by the things that are made." For just as art is manifested through the works of the artisan, so also the wisdom of God is manifested through creatures. Wisdom 13:5: "for by the greatness of the beauty and of the creature, the creator of them may be known so as to be seen." Third, he shows how through these things God is known, when he says "being understood, are clearly seen." For God can be known by the intellect, not by sense or imagination, which do not transcend bodily things; but "God is a spirit," as is said in John 4:24; Isaiah 52:13: "behold, my servant shall understand." Fourth, it can be designated from what, in this manner, God is known, when he says "from the creation of the world." By this, in one way, "creature" can be understood as man, Mark, last chapter: "preach the gospel to every creature," either because of the excellence of man, who in the order of nature is less than the angels but excels among the lower creatures, according to that saying of Psalm 8:6: "thou hast made him a little lower than the angels, thou hast subjected all things under his feet, sheep and oxen," etc.; or because he communicates with every creature: for he has being in common with stones, life in common with trees, sensation in common with animals, understanding in common with the angels, as Gregory says. In another way it can be understood of universal creation. For no creature, by its own natural powers, can see the essence of God in itself. Whence also of the Seraphim it is said in Isaiah 6:2 that "with two wings they covered their face." But, just as man understands God through visible creatures, so the angel does so through the fact that he understands his own essence. Now "from the creature of the world" can be understood in another way, not as the created thing itself but as the creation of things, as if it were said: from the creation of the world. And then it can be arranged in two ways. In one way, that it be understood that the invisible things of God are understood through the things that are made from the creation of the world, not only through the things that are made in the time of grace. In another way, that it be understood that from the creation of the world men began to know God through the things that are made. Job 36:25: "all men see him." Now the Gloss says that by "the invisible things of God" is understood the person of the Father. 1 Timothy, last chapter: "whom no man among men hath seen," etc. By "the eternal power," the person of the Son, according to that saying of 1 Corinthians 1:24: "Christ, the power of God." By "the divinity," the person of the Holy Spirit, to whom goodness is appropriated. Not that the philosophers, by the guidance of reason, were able to arrive, through the things that are made, at knowledge of the persons as to their proper characteristics, which do not signify a relation of a cause to creatures, but according to what is appropriated. Yet they are said to have fallen short in the third sign, that is, in the Holy Spirit, because they did not posit anything to correspond to the Holy Spirit, just as they posited something to correspond to the Father, namely the first principle itself, and something to correspond to the Son, namely the first created mind, which they called the paternal intellect, as Macrobius says in his book on the Dream of Scipio.

After the Apostle has shown that the truth of God was known by the gentiles, he here shows that they are liable to the guilt of impiety and of injustice. And first he shows this with respect to the guilt of impiety, second with respect to the guilt of injustice, at the place "and just as they did not approve," etc. Now someone might believe that they are excused from the guilt of impiety on account of ignorance, just as the Apostle says of himself below, 1 Timothy 1:13: "I obtained mercy, because I did it ignorantly." Therefore he first shows that the gentiles are not excusable, second he sets down their guilt, at the place "and they changed the glory." Concerning the first point it must be considered that ignorance excuses from guilt only when it proceeds in such a way, and causes the guilt, that it is not itself caused by guilt. As when someone, having employed due diligence, while believing he is striking an enemy, strikes his father. But if the ignorance is caused by guilt, the ignorance cannot excuse the subsequent guilt. Hence if someone commits homicide through drunkenness, he is not excused from guilt, because he sinned in making himself drunk; wherefore, according to the Philosopher, he deserves a double penalty.

First, therefore, he sets forth what he intends, saying thus: "that which is of God is known to them," so that they are inexcusable, that is, so that they cannot be excused by ignorance — James 4:17: "To him that knoweth to do good, and doth it not, to him it is sin." Below, chapter 2:1: "wherefore he is inexcusable." Second, at the place "because when they knew," etc., he proves what he had said. And first, he shows that their first guilt did not proceed from ignorance; second, that ignorance followed upon this guilt, at the place "but they became vain." Now that their first guilt was not from ignorance is shown by this: that having the knowledge of God, they did not make use of it unto good.

Now they knew God in two ways. In one way, as surpassing all things in eminence, and thus they owed him the glory and honor which is owed to what surpasses all else. These, therefore, are called inexcusable because, when they had known God, they did not glorify him as God — either because they did not render him the worship due to him, or because they set a limit to his power and knowledge, withdrawing something from his power and knowledge, contrary to what is said in Ecclesiasticus 43:37: "Glorify the Lord as much as ever you can." Second, they knew him as the cause of all good things. Hence thanksgiving was owed to him in all things, which nevertheless they themselves did not render, but rather ascribed their goods to their own talent and their own power; hence he adds "they gave not thanks," namely to the Lord — 1 Thessalonians, last chapter: "In all things give thanks."

Then, when he says "but they became vain," he shows that ignorance followed upon their guilt. And first he sets down what he intends, second he makes his proposal manifest, at the place "saying." First, therefore, he sets forth the guilt which is the cause of the ignorance when he says "they became vain." For that is called vain which does not have stability or firmness. But God alone is of himself immutable — Malachi 3:6: "I am God, and I change not." And therefore only then is the human mind free from vanity, when it leans upon God. But when, having set God aside, it leans upon any creature whatsoever, it falls into vanity — Wisdom 13:1: "All men are vain in whom there is not the knowledge of God," etc.; Psalm 93:11: "The Lord knoweth the thoughts of men, that they are vain." "They became vain in their thoughts," inasmuch as they had confidence in themselves, and not in God, ascribing their goods to themselves and not to God, according to that word of Psalm 11:5: "Our lips," etc.

Second, he sets down the ignorance that followed, saying "and it was darkened"; that is, through this that it was darkened, their foolish heart was made, that is, deprived of the light of wisdom, by which man truly knows God. For just as one who turns his bodily eyes away from the material sun falls into bodily darkness, so he who turns away from God, presuming upon himself and not upon God, is spiritually darkened. Proverbs 11:2: "Where humility is" — namely that by which man subjects himself to God — "there is wisdom; where pride is, there is reproach." Matthew 11:25: "Thou hast hid these things from the wise" — namely, as it seemed to them — "and hast revealed them to little ones," that is, to the humble. And concerning these it is found in Ephesians 4:17f.: "The gentiles walk in the vanity of their mind, having their understanding darkened."

Then, when he says "saying," he expounds what he had said. And first, how they became vain in their thoughts, when he says "saying that they were wise, they became fools." "Saying," that is, ascribing wisdom to themselves from themselves — Isaiah 5:21: "Woe to you that are wise in your own eyes." Isaiah 19:11: "How will you say to Pharaoh: I am the son of the wise, the son of ancient kings?" etc. Second, he expounds what he had said, "and their foolish heart was darkened," when he says "they became fools," as acting against divine wisdom — Jeremiah 10:14: "Every man is become a fool by his own knowledge," namely, that upon which he presumed.

Then, when he says "and they changed the glory," he sets down the sin of the gentiles' impiety. And first, as to how they sinned against the glory of God; second, how they sinned against the truth of his very nature, at the place "who changed the truth." Concerning the first he does two things: first he sets down the guilt of impiety, second the punishment, at the place "wherefore he delivered them up." Their guilt was indeed that, as far as was in them, they transferred the divine honor to another, according to that word of Jeremiah 2:11: "My people have changed their glory into an idol." First, therefore, he sets down what they changed, second that into which they changed it, at the place "into the likeness." Concerning the first, three things are to be attended to on the part of God.

First, indeed, his glory, which he touches upon saying "and they changed the glory," which can be understood in two ways. In one way, of the glory by which man glorifies God, rendering to him the worship of latria — 1 Timothy 1:17: "To God alone be honor." This, then, they changed, when they rendered to others the worship owed to God. In another way it can be understood of the glory by which God is glorious in himself, which is incomprehensible and infinite — Proverbs 25:27: "He that is a searcher of majesty, shall be overwhelmed by glory." This glory is nothing other than the very brightness of the divine nature; for "he dwelleth in light inaccessible," 1 Timothy, last chapter. This, however, they changed, when they attributed it to others. For "they gave the incommunicable name to wood and stones," as is said in Wisdom 14:21.

Second, incorruptibility is noted, when he says "incorruptible." For he alone is perfectly incorruptible, who is wholly immutable; for every change is a kind of corruption. Hence it is said, 1 Timothy, last chapter: "He alone hath immortality." Third, the sublimity of his nature is noted, when it is said "of God," for as is said in Psalm 47:2: "God is great, the Lord."

Now on the part of that into which they changed it, three corresponding things are set down. For, against "glory" he says "into the likeness of an image," that is, into the likeness of some thing expressed by another by way of an image. For it is manifest that the likeness of an image is posterior to that thing of which it is the image. But the glory, or brightness, of God is the principle of every species and form; and thus, when they changed the glory of God into the likeness of an image, they turned the first into the last. Wisdom 14:15: "For a father being afflicted with bitter grief, made to himself the image of his son who was quickly taken away."

Against what he had said, "incorruptible," he says "corruptible." Psalm 29:10: "What profit is there in my blood, while I go down to corruption?" Namely, that which is already further corrupted or dead? Wisdom 15:17: "Since he is mortal, he forms with wicked hands a dead thing." Against what he had said, "of God," he sets down "of man." Job 32:21: "I will not accept the person of man, and I will not equal God to man."

And, what is more abominable, man transferred the glory of God not only to man, who is made to the image of God, but even to those things which are beneath man; hence he adds "and of birds," as to flying things, "and of four-footed beasts," as to walking things, "and of serpents," as to creeping things. He passes over fish, however, as being more removed from human intercourse. But all these things have been subjected by God to man — Psalm 8:8: "Thou hast subjected all things under his feet." Ezekiel 8:9: "Go in, and see the wicked abominations which they do here. And I went in, and saw; and behold every form of creeping things and of beasts," etc.

Now it is to be noted that, as the Gloss says, from the coming of Aeneas it was customary in Italy for images of men to be worshipped, such as of Jupiter, Hercules, and the like. But in the time of Caesar Augustus, Egypt having been conquered, the Romans took up the worship of those who worshipped images of animals, on account of the figures of animals which are marked in the heavens, to which the Egyptians, as devoted to astrology, rendered the worship of divinity. Whence also the Lord removes the sons of Israel, who had been reared in Egypt, from this sort of worship, saying, Deuteronomy 4:19: "Lest perhaps lifting up thy eyes to heaven, thou see the sun and the moon and all the stars of heaven," etc.

Then, when he says "wherefore he delivered them up," he sets down the punishment corresponding to this guilt. Concerning which it must be considered that man holds a middle place between God and the brute animals, and communicates with both extremes: with God indeed, according to intellectuality; but with the brute animals, according to sensuality. Just as, therefore, man changed that which is of God all the way down to beasts, so God subjected that which is divine in man according to reason to that which is brutal in him, namely to the desire of sensuality, according to that word of Psalm 48:21: "Man, when he was in honor, did not understand" — namely the likeness of the divine image on account of reason — "he is compared to senseless beasts."

This, therefore, is what he says: "wherefore God delivered them up to the desires of their heart," so that their reason should be made subject to the desires of the heart, namely of sensual affection, of which it is said below, 13:14: "Make not provision for the flesh in its desires." This, indeed, is contrary to the natural order of man, according to which reason rules over sensible appetite — Genesis 4:7: "Its appetite shall be under thee, and thou shalt have dominion over it." He therefore leads men into the desires of their heart as into the hand of cruel lords — Isaiah 19:4: "I will deliver Egypt into the hand of cruel lords."

Especially, however, does a certain bestial disorder concerning the sensitive appetite pertain to carnal sins. For the pleasures of touch, with which gluttony and lust are concerned, are manifestly common to us and to brutes. And therefore they are the more reproachable, as being the more bestial, as the Philosopher says in Book III of the Ethics. And this is designated when he adds "unto uncleanness," which pertains to carnal sins, according to that word of Ephesians 5:5: "No fornicator, or unclean person" — because, namely, man, through sins of this kind, is above all turned and drawn to that which is beneath himself. For each thing is said to be impure or unclean from admixture with something baser, as silver from admixture with lead.

Hence, expounding, he adds "that they should afflict," that is, that with contumelies, that is, with base and unclean acts, they should afflict, that is, infect, "their own bodies among themselves," that is, not as though compelled by others, for instance by barbarians, but they do this of themselves, of their own accord. Below, 9:21: "Or hath not the potter power over the clay, of the same lump to make one vessel unto honor, and another unto dishonor?" Namely unto base use.

But since uncleanness of this kind is a sin, it seems that God does not deliver men up into it, because, as is said, James 1:13: "God is not a tempter of evils." It must be said that God is not said to deliver men into uncleanness directly, by inclining man's affection to evil, because God orders all things to himself — Proverbs 16:4: "The Lord hath made all things for himself" — whereas sin is something by turning away from him. But he delivers men indirectly into sin, insofar as he justly withdraws the grace by which men were held back from sinning; just as if someone were to remove a support from under someone, he would be said to cause his fall.

And in this way the first sin is the cause of the following sin, while the following is the punishment of the prior. For the evidence of which it must be known that one sin can be the cause of another indirectly and directly. Directly, indeed, insofar as from one sin there is an inclination to another, which happens in three ways. In one way, according to the nature of a final cause; as when someone is incited by avarice or envy to commit homicide. Second, according to the nature of a material cause; as gluttony leads to lust, by furnishing matter. Third, according to the nature of a moving cause; as when from many acts of some sin a habit is generated that induces to a similar sin.

Indirectly, however, as when the first sin merits the exclusion of grace, which being withdrawn, man rushes into another sin. And thus the first sin is the cause of the second indirectly, or by accident, as removing an obstacle. But it is to be noted that sin, as such, cannot be a punishment, because we suffer punishment against our will, whereas sin is voluntary, as Augustine says. But because sin has certain things attached to it which are against the will of the sinner, by reason of these, sin is called the punishment of a preceding sin.

Now this is, in one way, something preceding the sin, as the withdrawal of grace from which it follows that man sins. In another way, it is something joined to the sin itself, either interiorly, as is the disorder of the soul — whence Augustine says in Book I of the Confessions: "Thou hast commanded, O Lord," and thus it is that every disordered soul is a punishment to itself — or as regards exterior acts, to which difficulties and labors are joined, according to what the wicked say, Wisdom 5:7: "We have walked through difficult ways," etc. Third, as regards that which follows upon sin, such as remorse of conscience, infamy, and the like.

Then, when he says "changed," he sets down the guilt of impiety which they committed against the truth of the divine nature. And first he sets down the guilt, second the punishment, at the place "therefore he delivered them up." Now the divine nature can be considered in two ways. In one way, according as it is the ground of knowing, as the first truth, and as to this he says: "because they changed the truth of God into a lie." This indeed can be understood in two ways. In one way, because the true knowledge which they had received from God, they turned by a perverse reasoning to false doctrines, as when they said idols were gods, or that God was not omnipotent, or not omniscient — Jeremiah 9:5: "They have taught their tongue to speak lies."

In another way they changed the truth of God into a lie because they attributed the nature of divinity, which is truth itself, to an idol, which is a lie inasmuch as it is not God, as is said in Jeremiah 16:19f.: "Surely our fathers have possessed lies, vanity which hath not profited them. Shall a man make gods unto himself, and these are no gods?"

In another way the divine nature can be considered according as it is the principle of being to all things through creation: and thus there is owed to it from man, interiorly indeed, worship according to pious affection — John 9:31: "If any man be a server of God," etc. — but exteriorly, there is owed to it the service of latria, according to that word of Deuteronomy 6:13: "Thou shalt adore the Lord thy God, and him only shalt thou serve." Hence he adds, against them namely: "and worshipped and served the creature rather," etc.

For they worshipped the heavenly bodies, and air, and water, and other things of this kind, according to that word of Wisdom 13:2: "or fire, or spirit, or the swift air," etc. And in this he reproves the wise men among the gentiles who, although they never believed there to be any divinity in images, as the followers of Hermes believed, nor believed that the things fabulously said by the poets about the gods were true, nevertheless rendered the worship of divinity to certain creatures, from which they assigned the reason of the fables.

As Varro held that the whole world was God on account of its soul, saying that to the whole world, and to all its parts, the worship of divinity could be rendered — namely to the air, which they called Juno, and to water, which they called Liaeus, and so of the others. The Platonists also held that the worship of divinity is owed to all the rational substances which are above us; for instance, to demons, to the souls of the heavenly bodies, to intelligences, that is, to separate substances.

Although, however, we ought to show some reverence to those things which are above us, yet not the worship of latria, which consists chiefly in sacrifices and oblation, by which man professes that God is the author of all good things, just as in any kingdom some honor is shown to the supreme lord which it is not lawful to transfer to another. And therefore he adds "who is blessed," that is, whose goodness is manifest — for thus we say that we bless God insofar as we recognize his goodness in our heart and confess it with our mouth. Ecclesiasticus 43:33: "Blessing the Lord, exalt him as much as you can."

He adds, moreover, "forever," because his goodness is everlasting, not dependent on another, but the principle of all good. And from this all the worship of latria is owed to him. He adds, moreover, "Amen," to assert an all-encompassing certainty — Isaiah 65:16: "He who is blessed upon the earth shall be blessed in God. Amen," which is the same as "true," or "so be it."

Now it seems that the Apostle touches upon a threefold theology of the gentiles. First, indeed, the civil theology, which was observed by the priests in the worship of idols in the temple; and as to this he says: "and they changed the glory of the incorruptible God." Second, the fabulous theology, which the poets handed down in the theaters; and as to this he says: "who changed the truth of God into a lie." Third, the natural theology, which the philosophers observed in the world, worshipping the parts of the world; and as to this he says: "and worshipped and served the creature rather than the Creator."

Having set down the fault of impiety, according to which they sinned against the divine nature, he now sets down the punishment — namely, that they were reduced to this, that they should sin against their own nature. And first he sets down the punishment; second, he explains it, at the words "For their women"; third, he shows its fittingness, at the words "and the recompense." He says therefore first, "for this cause" — that is, because they exchanged the truth of God for a lie — "God delivered them up," not indeed by driving them into evil but by abandoning them, "unto the passions of ignominy," that is, to sins against nature, which are called passions insofar as, properly speaking, a passion is said to occur when something is drawn outside the order of its own nature — as when water is heated, or when a man falls ill. Hence, because through sins of this kind man withdraws from the natural order, they are fittingly called passions; below, chapter 7:5: "the passions of sins." Now they are called passions of ignominy because they are not worthy of being named, according to that saying, Ephesians 5:15: "the things that are done by them in secret, it is shameful even to speak of." For if the sins of the flesh are commonly reproached because through them man is brought down to what is bestial in man, much more so the sin against nature, through which man falls even below bestial nature. Hosea 4:7: "I will change their glory into shame."

Then, when he says "For their women," etc., he explains what he had said — first as regards women, second as regards males, at the words "and likewise the males." He says therefore first: I say that they were delivered up unto the passions of ignominy for this reason, that "their women exchanged the natural use for that use which is against nature." 1 Corinthians 11:14: "does not nature itself teach you." Isaiah 24:5: "they have changed the law, they have broken the everlasting covenant" — that is, the natural law. Now it must be considered that something is against the nature of man in two ways. In one way, against the nature of man's constitutive difference, which is rational; and in this way every sin is said to be against the nature of man, inasmuch as it is against right reason. Hence Damascene also says, in Book II, that a sinning angel was turned from that which is according to nature to that which is beyond nature. In another way, something is said to be against the nature of man by reason of his genus, which is animal. Now it is manifest that, according to the intention of nature, the commingling of the sexes in animals is ordered to the act of generation; hence every mode of commingling from which generation cannot follow is against the nature of man insofar as he is an animal. And according to this it is said in the Gloss: "the natural use is that a man and a woman come together in one act of intercourse; but it is against nature that a male should defile a male, and a woman a woman." And the same reasoning holds for every act of intercourse from which generation cannot follow.

Then, when he says "and likewise," he explains it as regards the males, who, namely, having left the natural use of the woman, "burned" — that is, they burned beyond the bounds of nature, according to that saying, Psalm 117:12: "they burned like fire among thorns" — "and this in their desires," namely carnal ones, "the males with the males, working that which is filthy." Ezekiel 16:37: "I will uncover your shame before them," etc.

Then, when he says "and the recompense," he shows this punishment to be fitting to the fault, saying, "receiving in themselves" — that is, in the deformation of their own nature — "the recompense of their error," namely, by which they exchanged the truth of God for a lie — "recompense," that is, the retribution which it was fitting that they should receive, according to the order of justice, by which it was owed that those who had been injurious to the nature of God — by attributing to creatures what is proper to him — should become contumelious in their own nature. And although "recompense" properly seems to sound in a good sense, nevertheless here it is taken for any retribution whatsoever, even in evil things, according to the manner in which it is said below, 6:23: "the wages of sin is death." Micah 1:7: "their rewards shall be burned with fire."

Now it must be noted that the Apostle quite reasonably sets down the vices against nature — which are the gravest among carnal sins — as the punishment of idolatry, because they seem to have begun at the same time as idolatry, namely in the time of Abraham, when idolatry is believed to have begun. Hence it is also then that they are first read to have been punished, in the Sodomites, as in Genesis 19. Likewise, as idolatry grew, vices of this kind grew along with it. Hence it is said, 2 Maccabees 4:12ff., that Jason dared, right under the citadel itself, to place the finest of the young men in brothels. Now this was not the beginning but a certain increase and advance of a gentile and foreign manner of life.

Then, when he says "and as they did not approve," he shows them to have been subject to justice. And first he shows from what prior fault they came into these sins; second, he enumerates the distinctions of these sins, at the words "filled with all iniquity." Now he sets down the preceding fault when he says, "and as they did not approve of having God in their knowledge." This can be understood in two ways. In one way, because although by the light of reason, through visible creatures, they were able to have true knowledge of God, nevertheless, so that they might sin more freely, "they did not approve" — that is, they did not consent — that they themselves should have God in their knowledge. Job 21:14: "depart from us, we desire not the knowledge of your ways." In another way, it can be understood that they did not approve that God should have human deeds in his knowledge, according to that saying, Psalm 93:7: "they said, the Lord shall not see, neither shall God understand." And according to this sense, the punishment fittingly corresponds to this fault, when it is added, "God delivered them up to a reprobate sense." Now this "sense" of man is said to be not the exterior sense, by which sensible things are known, but the interior, according to which he judges about things to be done, according to that saying, Wisdom 6:16: "to think upon her is a consummate understanding." Now the sense is called reprobate whereby someone has a judgment about things to be done that is to be reprobated, according to that saying, 2 Timothy 3:8: "men corrupted in mind, reprobate concerning the faith." Jeremiah 6:30: "call them reprobate silver." And therefore he adds, that they should do the things that are not fitting, that is, the things that are discordant from right reason. Wisdom 3:11: "their works are unprofitable." Now it is fitting that those who sinned against the knowledge of God — either unwilling to know him, or not thinking that he could be known — should be delivered over into a perversity of sense. Hence it is also said, Wisdom 14:31: "the punishment of sinners always walks abroad unto the transgression of the just."

Then, when he says "filled," etc., he enumerates works of this unfitting kind. And first, he sets down that which is general, saying "filled with all iniquity," because, as it is said in 1 John 3:4, every sin is iniquity. For just as every virtue, insofar as it carries out the precept of the law, has the character of justice, so too every sin, insofar as it is discordant from the rule of the divine law, has the character of iniquity. And thus in Sacred Scripture sins are chiefly reproved under this name. Now he aggravates their fault in two ways. First, indeed, intensively, through his saying "filled." For he seems to be filled with iniquity whose affection is wholly disposed toward sinning, according to that saying, Psalm 13:3: "whose mouth is full of cursing and bitterness." Second, extensively, namely because they sinned not only in one thing but in all things. Wisdom 14:27: "the worship of unspeakable idols is the cause of every evil."

Consequently, when he says "malice," he enumerates the sins in particular. And first as regards transgression, which is opposed to the negative precepts; second as regards omission, which is opposed to the affirmative precepts, at the word "proud." Concerning the first he does two things: first he sets down the sins by which someone is made worse in himself; second, the sins by which someone becomes harmful to his neighbor, at the word "wickedness." Concerning the first, he sets down first that which is general, when he says "malice," which is a vicious habit, opposed to virtue. Hence those who sin from malice are said to sin from habit. Psalm 51:3: "why do you glory in malice?" In particular he sets down the sin by which someone is disordered as regards the appetite for bodily delights, when he says "fornication." For although fornication properly belongs to harlots, who prostituted themselves publicly beside the "fornices," that is, the triumphal arches, nevertheless here it is taken for every unlawful intercourse. Tobit 4:13: "attend to yourself, my son, from all fornication." Second, he sets down the vice by which someone is disordered as regards the appetite for external things, when he says "avarice," which is an immoderate appetite for having. Hebrews, last chapter: "let your manners be without avarice, content with such things as you have."

Then are set down the sins which tend to the harm of one's neighbor. And first he sets down what is general when he says "wickedness," namely, when someone attempts what he cannot carry out; which happens chiefly with regard to the harming of one's neighbors, whom one is sometimes not able to harm as much as one would wish. Psalm 7:10: "the wickedness of sinners shall be brought to an end." Then he sets down the root of these sins, saying "full of envy," which is sorrow over another's good, from which someone is incited to harm another. Wisdom 2:24: "by the envy of the devil, death entered into the world." After this are set down the harms, and first the manifest ones — as regards deeds, when he says "murders," which are the chief harms. Hosea 4:2: "cursing, and lying, and killing, and theft, and adultery have overflowed." Now he says "murders" in the plural, because murder consists not only in deed but also in will. 1 John 3:5: "he who hates his brother is a murderer" — namely, one who hates unto killing. And as regards words, when he says "contention." Now contention is an assault upon the truth accompanied by confidence of clamor. Proverbs 20:3: "it is an honor for a man to separate himself from contentions."

Then he sets down the hidden harms, and first that which is general, when he says "guile," namely, when one thing is feigned and another is done. Jeremiah 9:8: "their tongue is a wounding arrow, it has spoken deceit; with his mouth one speaks peace with his friend, and secretly he lays snares for him." After this he sets down the interior root of these harms, when he says "malignity," which implies an evil fire, that is, an evil affection in the heart, according to that saying, Psalm 27:3: "they speak peace with their neighbor, but evils are in their hearts." Psalm 5:6: "the malignant shall not dwell near you." Consequently he sets down the hidden harms which are done chiefly by words, when he says "whisperers," namely, those who secretly whisper into people's ears so as to sow discord among them. Ecclesiasticus 18:15: "the whisperer and the double-tongued is cursed among the people; for he has troubled many that were at peace." "Detractors," namely, those who secretly detract from someone's reputation, that is, saying evil things about him while he is unaware. Ecclesiastes 10:11: "if a serpent bites in silence, he is no better off who detracts secretly."

And lest these sins be thought light, because they are committed by the mouth alone, he adds "hateful to God." For they assault, above all, that which God loves in men, namely mutual love. John 15:12: "this is my commandment, that you love one another." Hence it is said, Proverbs 6:16: "there are six things which the Lord hates, and the seventh his soul detests" — namely, him who sows discord among brothers. He adds, moreover, "contumelious," namely, those who inflict evils to the face. 1 Timothy 1:13: "who before was a blasphemer, and a persecutor, and contumelious." Thus, then, these three vices agree in their matter, because all of them speak evil of one's neighbor. But they differ in their end, for the whisperer aims at discord, the detractor at infamy, the contumelious man at injury.

Consequently he sets down the sins that pertain to omission, and first he sets down the root of these sins when he says "proud." For the proud are so called as it were going beyond themselves through a disordered appetite for excellence; for they wish to be over others, not to be under another's rule, and therefore they omit the precepts. Ecclesiasticus 10:15: "the beginning of all sin is pride," which is true as regards turning away from God, not as regards turning toward a changeable good. For it is said, 1 Timothy, last chapter: "the root of all evils is covetousness." Second, he sets down the progress of pride, from which first arises in the heart "elation," namely, that a man lifts himself up above others. Luke 18:11: "I am not as the rest of men." Hence it is said against the haughty, that saying, Psalm 130:1: "neither have my eyes been lifted up." Second, from pride there arises in deed "a presumption of novelties," and as regards this he adds "inventors of evil things"; for since good things have already been instituted by God and by men, it follows that they themselves devise new evils. Isaiah 3:8: "their devisings are against the Lord."

Consequently the omissions themselves are set down. And first with respect to superiors; hence, as regards parents, he says "disobedient to parents," against that which is said, Ephesians 6:1: "children, obey your parents in the Lord." As regards God he says "foolish," that is, acting against divine reverence. Job 28:28: "behold, the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom; and to depart from evil, that is understanding." Second, he sets down the omission as regards oneself, when he says "without order," in dress and in gait. Ecclesiasticus 19:27: "the attire of the body, and the laughter of the teeth, and the gait of a man, show what he is." Some, however, are blamed, Isaiah 3:16, for walking with an ordered gait, because that ordering exceeded the common manner of the men among whom they lived. Third, he sets down the omission as regards equals, toward whom we ought to have, first, affection in the heart; against which he says "without affection." Proverbs 12:10: "the bowels of the wicked are cruel." 2 Timothy 3:2: "men shall be lovers of themselves" — namely, and not of others. Second, a man ought to show them social intercourse; against which he adds "without covenant," namely, whereby they do not live together sociably with others. Judges 18:27ff.: "they struck them with the edge of the sword, because they had no society or dealings with any man." Ecclesiastes 4:10: "woe to him that is alone, for when he falls," etc. Fourth, as regards inferiors, he adds "without mercy," which we owe to show to the wretched. James 2:13: "judgment shall be without mercy to him that has not shown mercy," etc.

Then, when he says "who, whereas they had known the justice," he shows them to be liable to wrath, or to divine vengeance. Concerning this, three things are to be considered: first, their natural disposition, because, although they knew God to be just and to have all other perfections, they did not believe that he would inflict punishment for sins. Zephaniah 1:12: "they say in their hearts, the Lord will not do good, nor will he do evil." And this is what he says: "who, whereas they had known the justice of God, did not understand." Second, the punishment owed to their sins, when he says "they are worthy of death." Below, 6:23: "the wages of sin is death." For it is fitting that the soul, which deserts God, should be deserted by its own body through bodily death, and finally be deserted by God through eternal death, of which it is said in Psalm 33:22: "the death of the wicked is the worst," and Revelation 20:6: "over these the second death shall have no power." Third, it must be considered to whom such punishment is owed. And, first, to those who do such things, namely the aforesaid sins, according to that saying, Psalm 5:7: "you hate all who work iniquity; you shall destroy all who speak a lie." And not only to those who do them, but also to those who consent to those who do them. And this in two ways. In one way directly, either by praising the sin, according to that saying, Psalm 9:24: "the sinner is praised in the desires of his soul" — or also by furnishing counsel and favor, according to that saying, 2 Chronicles 19:2: "you give help to the wicked." In another way indirectly, when one does not reprove or impede in whatever way, if he can, and especially if it falls to him by office — just as the sins of his sons were imputed to Eli, as is evident in 1 Kings 3:13. Now the Apostle says this especially on account of certain wise men among the Gentiles, who, even if they did not worship idols, nevertheless did not resist those who did worship them.