Wherein in time past you walked according to the course of this world, according to the prince of the power of this air, of the spirit that now worketh on the children of unbelief:

“If any one confesses the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, and praises the creation, but calls the incarnation merely an appearance, and is ashamed of the passion, such an one has denied the faith, not less than the Jews who killed Christ. If any one confesses these things, and that God the Word did dwell in a human body, being within it as the Word, even as the soul also is in the body, because it was God that inhabited it, and not a human soul, but affirms that unlawful unions are a good thing, and places the highest happiness in pleasure, as does the man who is falsely called a Nicolaitan, this person can neither be a lover of God, nor a lover of Christ, but is a corrupter of his own flesh, and therefore void of the Holy Spirit, and a stranger to Christ. All such persons are but monuments and sepulchres of the dead, upon which are written only the names of dead men. Flee, therefore, the wicked devices and snares of the spirit which now worketh in the children of this world, lest at any time being overcome, ye grow weak in your love.”

“Just as if any one, being an apostate, and seizing in a hostile manner another man's territory, should harass the inhabitants of it, in order that he might claim for himself the glory of a king among those ignorant of his apostasy and robbery; so likewise also the devil, being one among those angels who are placed over the spirit of the air, as the Apostle Paul has declared in his Epistle to the Ephesians, becoming envious of man, was rendered an apostate from the divine law: for envy is a thing foreign to God. And as his apostasy was exposed by man, and man became the [means of] searching out his thoughts (et examinatio sententiae ejus, homo factus est), he has set himself to this with greater and greater determination, in opposition to man, envying his life, and wishing to involve him in his own apostate power. The Word of God, however, the Maker of all things, conquering him by means of human nature, and showing him to be an apostate, has, on the contrary, put him under the power of man. For He says, "Behold, I confer upon you the power of treading upon serpents and scorpions, and upon all the power of the enemy," in order that, as he obtained dominion over man by apostasy, so again his apostasy might be deprived of power by means of man turning back again to God.”

“"Once you followed the course of this world." World here is completely distinguishable from God. For the creature is unlike the Creator, the artifact unlike its Maker, the world unlike God. Similarly when Paul speaks of those who "follow the prince of the power of the air" he is referring not to the one God who holds sway over all the ages. For the one who presides over higher authorities is never classified by reference to one lower.”

“Let us, therefore, fear the judgment which awaits teachers. For a severe judgment will those teachers receive "who teach, but do not," and those who take upon them the name of Christ falsely, and say: We teach the truth, and yet go wandering about idly, and exalt themselves, and make their boast "in the mind of the flesh." These, moreover, are like "the blind man who leads the blind man, and they both fall into the ditch." [Matthew 15:14] And they will receive judgment, because in their talkativeness and their frivolous teaching they teach natural wisdom and the "frivolous error of the plausible words of the wisdom of men," "according to the will of the prince of the dominion of the air, and of the spirit which works in those men who will not obey, according to the training of this world, and not according to the doctrine of Christ." But if thou hast received "the word of knowledge, or the word of instruction, or of prophecy," [1 Corinthians 12:8-10] blessed be God, "who helps every man without grudging — that God who gives to every man and does not upbraid him." [James 1:5]”

“You observe the gentleness of Paul, and how on all occasions he encourages the hearer, not bearing too hard upon him. For whereas he had said, Ye have arrived at the very last degree of wickedness, (for such is the meaning of becoming dead,) that he may not excessively distress them, (because men are put to shame when their former misdeeds are brought forward, cancelled though they be, and no longer attended with danger,) he gives them, as it were, an accomplice, that it may not be supposed that the work is all their own, and that accomplice a powerful one. And who then is this? The Devil.”

“the divine Apostle, speaking of the Adversary, teaches what was his work from the beginning in these words: According to the prince of the power of the air, of the spirit that now worketh in the sons of disobedience —words which clearly show him to have been formerly a prince endowed with the power of moving the air and changing its place, but one now cast out for ever from this dignity; yea, rather, one who from sheer depravity works upon sinners, as is evident from the fact that he stood not alone in having the power to do this, but shared it in common with many others. For some of the angels were commissioned to move the air, some the sun, some the moon, some the stars, while others prepared the clouds and the rains, and rendered many other services— for this is the work, the appointed duty, of the angelic orders and powers—to minister to the well-being and honour of the image of God, that is, of man, and to move all things like soldiers obeying the commands of the king. This work they were commanded to do on the fourth day, when God adorned the heaven with its stars. The work of the adverse demons, as rebels against God, is to do what will mar his image, for on the fourth day they transgressed the command and were cast out of heaven”

“Above, the Apostle enumerated the benefits shown to the human race in common through Christ; here the Apostle recalls the same benefits by comparison to their past condition. Now their past condition can be considered in two ways. First, as to the condition of guilt; second, as to their condition of gentileness. The Apostle therefore does two things: first he recalls the benefits shown to them as regards the first condition; second he recalls them by comparison to the second condition, at the words for which cause be mindful, etc. The first is again divided into two, because first the Apostle recounts their condition of guilt; second the benefit of the grace of justification, at the words but God, who is rich, etc. The first is again divided into two, because first he recalls the condition of guilt as regards the Gentiles; second as regards the Jews, at the words among whom also we all, etc. The first is again divided into two, because first he sets forth the generality of the benefit; second he adds the necessity of this benefit, at the words when we were dead, etc. He says therefore: I say that God works magnificently in the faithful according to the working of the might of his power, which he wrought in Christ, and this because he raised him from the dead; according to this working, then, in the likeness of this working he has made us alive together, that is, with the life of grace out of the death of sin. Hosea 6:3: he will revive us after two days, on the third day he will raise us up, etc. Colossians 3:1: if you have risen together with Christ, seek the things that are above, etc. He shows the necessity of this benefit when he says when you were dead, etc., where he describes their guilt most excellently. First as to its multitude, because when you were dead, namely with a spiritual death, which is the worst. Psalm 33:22: the death of sinners is the worst. For sin is called death, because through it man is separated from the Lord, who is life. John 14:6: I am the way, the truth, and the life. Dead, I say, in your offenses and sins — behold the multitude. In offenses indeed as to things omitted, Psalm 18:13: who understands offenses, etc.; and in sins as to things committed. In which you once walked — which he says for this reason, that he might magnify the multitude of sins. For some, if for an hour they are dead in sins and in offenses, nevertheless cease at some point and desist from sinning; but these, proceeding and walking from bad to worse, kept advancing. A similar thing is found in Philippians 3:18: for many walk, of whom I have often told you, and now tell you weeping, etc. Jeremiah 2:5: they walked after their vanity, and became vain. Second, he describes their guilt as to its cause, which is set down as twofold. One is on the part of this world, because they were being enticed by the things of the world. And as to this he says according to the age of this world, that is, according to the worldly life of the things of the world, which entice you. 1 John 2:15: if anyone loves the world, the charity of the Father is not in him. For which reason he had said beforehand: love not the world. The other cause is on the part of the demons, whom they served, of whom it is said in Wisdom 14:27: the worship of unspeakable idols is the cause and beginning of every evil. And as to this he says and according to the prince of the power. Now he describes this cause in three ways. First indeed as to the power, saying according to the prince of the power, that is, one exercising power — not that he has this naturally, since he is neither lord nor creator by nature, but insofar as he lords it over men who subject themselves to him by sinning. John 12:31: now the prince of this world shall be cast out. And John 14:30: the prince of this world is coming, and in me he has nothing. Second as to habitation, because of this air, that is, one who has power in this murky air. Here it must be known that concerning these demons there is a twofold opinion among the doctors. For some have said that the demons who fell were not of the highest orders, but of the lower ones, which preside over the lower bodies. Now it is agreed that the whole corporeal creature is administered by God through the ministry of angels. And this is the opinion of John Damascene, namely that the first of those who fell presided over the order of earthly things, which perhaps was taken from a saying of Plato, who posited certain celestial or worldly substances. And according to this, what he says of this air is expounded as meaning: created for this, that they might preside over this air. But others hold, and better, that they were of the highest orders, so that what he says of this air serves to show that this very air is their habitation as their punishment. Whence Jude in his canonical epistle says: but the angels who did not keep their own principality, but abandoned their own dwelling, he has kept in everlasting chains under darkness unto the judgment of the great day. Now the reason why they were not thrust down into hell immediately after their fall, but are left in the air, is that God did not wish that, through their sinning, their creation should be entirely frustrated; and therefore he gave them over to men as a training-ground, whereby they might prepare a crown for the good, but eternal death for the wicked. And because until the day of judgment there is for us a time of war and of meriting, therefore they will remain in the air until then; but after the day of judgment they will be thrust down into hell. It must also be noted that one reading has spirits (spiritus), and thus it is of the genitive case, and the singular is put for the plural, as if to say: of the spirits. Another reading has spirit (spiritum), and then it is of the accusative case, so that it would read: according to the prince spirit, that is, who is prince of spirit. Third as to operation, where he says who now works in the sons of unbelief, that is, in those who repel from themselves the fruit of the passion of Christ, who were sons of unbelief. Or because they have no faith concerning eternal things, nor hope of salvation through Christ: and in such men the prince of the power of this air works freely, leading them where he wills, of whom it is said below, chapter 4:19: who, despairing, have given themselves up to lasciviousness, unto the working of all uncleanness. Or unbelief, that is, of those concerning whom one must be diffident, that is, who sin out of malice, in whom the prince of this world also works at his beck and call. For concerning those who sin out of ignorance and weakness, one is not to despair, nor does that prince work in them at his beck and call. But against this: no one is to be despaired of as long as he lives. I answer. It must be said that concerning anyone there can be a twofold hope: one on the part of man, the other on the part of divine grace. And thus concerning someone one may despair on his own part, of whom nevertheless one must not despair on the part of God — just as it was to be despaired of, on his own part, that Lazarus lying in the tomb would rise again, though it was not to be despaired of on the part of God, by whom he was raised up. Concerning those, then, who out of malice are much sunk down in sins, if their own strength be regarded, one may despair — Psalm 68:3: I am stuck in the mire of the deep, and there is no sure standing — yet not if the divine power be regarded. Concerning these sons of unbelief it is said below, chapter 5:6: let no man deceive you with vain words. For because of these things the wrath of God comes upon the sons of unbelief. Then, when he says among whom we also all, etc., the Apostle recalls the condition of guilt as regards the Jews, showing that they all had been in sin, according to that saying in Romans 3:9: we have charged that Jews and Greeks are all under sin. Yet a difference must be noted here, because the Apostle, treating of the guilt of the Gentiles, assigned two causes of guilt to have existed: one on the part of the world, the other on the part of the demons, whom they worshipped. Because, then, the Jews were like the Gentiles in the condition of guilt as regards the first cause, but not as regards the second, therefore the Apostle makes no mention of their guilt except as regards the cause which is on the part of the world. Concerning this he does three things. First he recalls their guilt as to the sin of the heart; second as to the sin of deed; third as to the sin of origin. Now he intimates the sin of the heart through the desires of the flesh, and as to this he says among whom, namely the sins or offenses, we all, namely the Jews, once had our conversation, leading our life, in the desires of our flesh, that is, of carnal things. Titus 3:3: for we also were sometime foolish and unbelieving, erring and serving divers desires and pleasures, etc. Romans 13:14: make not provision for the flesh in its desires. Now the sin of deed is nothing other than the expression of interior concupiscence. Now there is a certain concupiscence of the flesh, such as the natural concupiscences, for instance that of food, whereby the individual is preserved, and that of venereal things, whereby the species is preserved; and as to this he says doing the will, etc., that is, those things in which the flesh takes delight. Romans 8:8: now they that are in the flesh cannot please God. But there is another, a concupiscence of the cognitive power, namely of those things which do not come from the desires of the flesh, but from the very appetite of the soul, such as ambition for honor and for one's own excellence, and the like; and as to this he says and of the thoughts, that is, carrying out those concupiscences which are caused by the instinct of our thoughts. Now he intimates the sin of origin, saying and we were by nature children of wrath. This sin indeed is transfused from the first parent not only into the Gentiles, but also into the Jews. Romans 5:12: as by one man sin entered into this world, and by sin death; and so death passed upon all men, in whom all have sinned. And just as men are cleansed of original sin through baptism only as regards their own persons, whence they beget sons who must be baptized, so circumcision cleansed from the original only the persons themselves, but they still begot children who had to be circumcised. And this is what he says we were by nature, that is, through the origin of nature — not indeed of nature as nature is, since as such it is good and from God, but of nature as it is vitiated — children of wrath, that is, of vengeance, of punishment, and of Gehenna, and this even as the rest also, that is, the Gentiles.”

“Wherein in time past ye walked,.... Sins and transgressions are a road or path, in which all unconverted sinners walk; and this path is a dark, crooked, and broad one, which leads to destruction and death, and yet is their own way, which they choose, approve of, and delight to walk in; and walking in it denotes a continued series of sinning, an obstinate persisting in it, a progress in iniquity, and pleasure therein: and the time of walking in this path, being said to be in time past, shows that the elect of. God before conversion, walk in the same road that others do; and that conversion is a turning out of this way; and that when persons are converted, the course of their walking is altered, which before was according to the course of this world meaning this world, in distinction from the world to come, or the present age, in which the apostle lived, and designs the men of it; and the course of it is their custom, manner, and way of life; to which God's elect, during their state of unregeneracy, conform, both with respect to conversation and religious worship: great is the force that prevailing customs have over men; it is one branch of redemption by Christ, to deliver men from this present evil world, and to free them from a vain conversation in it; and it is only the grace of God that effectually teaches to deny the lusts of it; and it is only owing to the prevalent intercession and power of Christ, that even converted persons are kept from the evil of it: according to the prince of the power of the air: which is not to be understood of any supposed power the devil has over the air, by divine permission, to raise winds, but of a posse, or body of devils, who have their residence in the air; for it was not only the notion of the Jews (m), that there are noxious and accusing spirits, who fly about "in the air", and that there is no space between the earth and the firmament free, and that the whole is full of a multitude of them; but also it was the opinion of the Chaldeans (n), and of Pythagoras (o), and Plato (p), that the air is full of demons: now there is a prince who is at the head of these, called Beelzebub, the prince of devils, or the lord of a fly, for the devils under him are as so many flies in the air, Mat 12:24 and by the Jews called (q), , "the prince of spirits"; and is here styled, the Spirit that now worketh in the children of disobedience; by which spirit is meant, not the lesser devils that are under the prince, nor the spirit of the world which comes from him, and is not of God; but Satan himself, who is a spirit, and an evil, and an unclean one; and who operates powerfully in unbelievers, for they are meant by children of disobedience, or unbelief; just as , "children of faith" (r), in the Jewish dialect, designs believers; and over these Satan has great influence, especially the reprobate part of them; whose minds he blinds, and whose hearts he fills, and puts it into them to do the worst of crimes; and indeed, he has great power over the elect themselves, while in unbelief, and leads them captive at his will; and these may be said in their unregeneracy to walk after him, when they imitate him, and do his lusts, and comply with what he suggests, dictates to them, or tempts them to. (m) Shaare Ora, fol. 4. 1. (n) Laert. Procem. in Vit. Philos, p. 5. (o) lb. in Vit. Pythagor. p. 587. (p) Apuleius de Deo Socratis, p. 331. (q) T. Hieros. Peah, fol. 21. 2. (r) Zohar in Gen. fol. 21. 2. & 22. 4. & 27. 4. & 28. 2. & 35. 2. & 44. 1.”

“Wherein in time past ye walked - There is much force in these expressions; the Ephesians had not sinned casually, or now and then, but continually; it was their continual employment; they walked in trespasses and sins: and this was not a solitary case, all the nations of the earth acted in the same way; it was the course of this world, κατα τον αιωνα του κοσμου τουτου, according to the life, mode of living, or successive ages of this world. The word αιων, the literal meaning of which is constant duration, is often applied to things which have a complete course, as the Jewish dispensation, a particular government, and the term of human life; so, here, the whole of life is a tissue of sin, from the cradle to the grave; every human soul, unsaved by Jesus Christ, continues to transgress. And the nominally Christian world is in the same state to the present day. Age after age passes on in this way and the living lay it not to heart! The prince of the power of the air - As the former clause may have particular respect to the Jewish people, who are frequently denominated עולם הזה olam hazzeh, this world, this latter clause may especially refer to the Gentiles, who were most manifestly under the power of the devil, as almost every object of their worship was a demon, to whom the worst of passions and practices were attributed, and whose conduct his votaries took care to copy. Satan is termed prince of the power of the air, because the air is supposed to be a region in which malicious spirits dwell, all of whom are under the direction and influence of Satan, their chief. The spirit that now worketh - Του νυν ενεργουντος The operations of the prince of the aerial powers are not confined to that region; he has another sphere of action, viz. the wicked heart of man, and in this he works with energy. He seldom inspires indifference to religion; the subjects in whom he works are either determinate opposers of true religion, or they are systematic and energetic transgressors of God's laws. Children of disobedience - Perhaps a Hebraism for disobedient children; but, taken as it stands here, it is a strong expression, in which disobedience, ἡ απειθεια, appears to be personified, and wicked men exhibited as her children; the prince of the power of the air being their father, while disobedience is their mother. Thus they are emphatically, what our Lord calls them, Mat 13:38, children of the wicked one; for they show themselves to be of their father the devil, because they will do his works, Joh 8:44. Some think that by children of disobedience the apostle means particularly the disobedient, unbelieving, refractory, and persecuting Jews; but I rather think he speaks this generally, and refers to the Jews in the following verse.”

“According to the course of this world, (i.e. the customs of this wicked corrupt world) according to the prince of the power of this air, of the spirit, &c. meaning the devils, who are permitted to exercise their power upon the earth, or in the air. See John xii. 10.; xiv. 30.; xvi. 11. (Witham) — Secundum sœculum mundi hujus: according to the custom of this world. You were dead to the eyes of God, but you live in the eyes of the world: and how do you live? according to the maxims of the world, in idolatry, in crime, in corruption of manners. Corrumpi et corrumpere sęculum est. (Tacitus) (Calmet)”

“the course of this world--the career (literally, "the age," compare Gal 1:4), or present system of this world (Co1 2:6, Co1 2:12; Co1 3:18-19, as opposed to "the world to come"): alien from God, and lying in the wicked one (Jo1 5:19). "The age" (which is something more external and ethical) regulates "the world" (which is something more external). the prince of the power of the air--the unseen God who lies underneath guiding "the course of this world" (Co2 4:4); ranging through the air around us: compare Mar 4:4, "fowls of the air" (Greek, "heaven") that is, (Eph 2:15), "Satan" and his demons. Compare Eph 6:12; Joh 12:31. Christ's ascension seems to have cast Satan out of heaven (Rev 12:5, Rev 12:9-10, Rev 12:12-13), where he had been heretofore the accuser of the brethren (Job 1:6-11). No longer able to accuse in heaven those justified by Christ, the ascended Saviour (Rom 8:33-34), he assails them on earth with all trials and temptations; and "we live in an atmosphere poisonous and impregnated with deadly elements. But a mighty purification of the air will be effected by Christ's coming" [AUBERLEN], for Satan shall be bound (Rev 12:12-13, Rev 12:15, Rev 12:17; Rev 20:2-3). "The power" is here used collectively for the "powers of the air"; in apposition with which "powers" stand the "spirits," comprehended in the singular, "the spirit," taken also collectively: the aggregate of the "seducing spirits" (Ti1 4:1) which "work now (still; not merely, as in your case, 'in time past') in the sons of disobedience" (a Hebraism: men who are not merely by accident disobedient, but who are essentially sons of disobedience itself: compare Mat 3:7), and of which Satan is here declared to be "the prince." The Greek does not allow "the spirit" to refer to Satan, "the prince" himself, but to "the powers of the air" of which he is prince. The powers of the air are the embodiment of that evil "spirit" which is the ruling principle of unbelievers, especially the heathen (Act 26:18), as opposed to the spirit of the children of God (Luk 4:33). The potency of that "spirit" is shown in the "disobedience" of the former. Compare Deu 32:20, "children in whom is no faith" (Isa 30:9; Isa 57:4). They disobey the Gospel both in faith and practice (Th2 1:8; Co2 2:12).”