Thomas Aquinas

The Evangelist has set out above, as it were, a brief title of Christ's teaching; now he sets out the teaching itself, and its effect, namely the wonder of the crowds. Now it must be considered that, according to Augustine, in this sermon of the Lord the whole perfection of our life is contained. And he proves this by what the Lord adds as the end to which it leads, namely a certain promise. Now that which man desires most is beatitude. Hence the Lord here does three things. First he sets forth the reward which follows for those who receive this teaching; second he lays down the precepts, where he says, "Do not think that I have come to destroy the law," etc.; third he teaches how one can arrive at keeping them, where he says, "Ask and you shall receive." Concerning the first he does two things, because of this teaching some are only observers, others are ministers. First, therefore, he describes the beatitude of those who observe; second, of those who minister, where he says, "Blessed are you when they curse you." Now it must be noted that several things are set down here concerning the beatitudes; but no one could ever speak of the Lord's words so subtly as to attain fully to the Lord's intent. Yet it must be known that in these words the whole full beatitude is included: for all men desire beatitude, but they differ in judging about what beatitude is; and therefore some desire this, others that. Now we find a fourfold opinion about beatitude. For some believe that it consists only in exterior things, namely in an abundance of these temporal goods; Psalm 143:15: "They have called the people blessed who have these things." Others hold that perfect beatitude consists in this, that man satisfy his own will; hence we say: blessed is he who lives as he wishes. Ecclesiastes 3:12: "And I knew that there was nothing better than to rejoice," etc. Others say that perfect beatitude consists in the virtues of the active life. Others, that it consists in the virtues of the contemplative life, namely of divine and intelligible things, as Aristotle held. Now all these opinions are false, though not in the same way. Hence the Lord rejects them all. The opinion of those who said that it consists in an abundance of exterior things he rejects: hence he says "blessed are the poor," as if to say, not blessed are the wealthy. The opinion of those who placed beatitude in the satisfaction of appetite he rejects when he says "blessed are the merciful." But it must be known that there is a threefold appetite in man: the irascible, which desires vengeance on enemies, and this he rejects when he says "blessed are the meek." The concupiscible, whose good is to enjoy and take delight: this he rejects when he says "blessed are they that mourn." And that of the will, which is twofold, according as it seeks two things. First, that the will be bound by no higher law; second, that it be able to restrain others as subjects: hence it desires to rule, and not to be ruled. Now the Lord shows the contrary as to both. And as to the first he says "blessed are they that hunger and thirst after justice." As to the second he says "blessed are the merciful." Therefore both those who place beatitude in exterior abundance, and those who place it in the satisfaction of appetite, err. But those who place beatitude in the acts of the active life, namely the moral acts, err less, because that is a way to beatitude. Hence the Lord does not reject it as evil, but shows it to be ordered to beatitude: for such acts are either ordered to oneself, as temperance and the like, and their end is cleanness of heart, because they make one conquer the passions; or they are ordered to another, and thus their end is peace and the like: for the work of justice is peace. And therefore these virtues are ways to beatitude, and not beatitude itself; and this is "blessed are the clean of heart, for they shall see God." He does not say "they see," because that would be beatitude itself. And again, "blessed are the peacemakers," not because they are peaceable, but because they tend toward something further, namely that "they shall be called the children of God." Now the opinion of those who say that beatitude consists in the contemplation of divine things the Lord rejects only as to time, because otherwise it is true, since ultimate happiness consists in the vision of the best intelligible object, namely God: hence he says "they shall see." And it must be noted that, according to the Philosopher, in order for contemplative acts to make one blessed, two things are required: one substantially, namely that it be an act concerning the highest intelligible object, which is God; the other formally, namely love and delight, for delight perfects happiness as beauty perfects youth. And therefore the Lord sets down two things: "they shall see God" and "they shall be called children of God": for this latter pertains to the union of love; 1 John 3:1: "See what manner of charity the Father has given us, that we should be called and should be the children of God." Likewise it must be noted that in these beatitudes some things are set down as merits, and some as rewards, and this in each one. "Blessed are the poor in spirit": behold the merit; "for theirs is the kingdom of heaven": behold the reward, and so in the others. And it must also be noted, something concerning merit in general, and something concerning reward in general. Concerning merit it must be known that the Philosopher distinguishes a twofold kind of virtue: one common, which perfects man in a human manner; the other special, which he calls heroic, which perfects above the human manner. For when a strong man fears where fear is to be had, this is virtue; but if he did not fear at all, it would be a vice. But if, trusting in God's help, he feared in nothing, this virtue would be above the human manner, and such virtues are called divine. These acts, therefore, are perfect, and virtue too, according to the Philosopher, is a perfect operation. Therefore these merits are either acts of the gifts, or acts of the virtues insofar as they are perfected by the gifts. Likewise note that the acts of the virtues are those which the law commands; but the merits of beatitude are acts of the virtues; and therefore all things which are commanded and are contained below are referred to these beatitudes. Hence just as Moses first set forth precepts, and afterward said many things which were all referred back to the precepts set forth, so Christ in his teaching first put forward these beatitudes, to which all other things are reduced. Concerning the first point it must be noted that God is the reward of those who serve him; Lamentations 3:24: "The Lord is my portion, said my soul, therefore will I wait for him"; Psalm 15:5: "The Lord is the portion of my inheritance and of my cup"; Genesis 15:7: "I am the Lord who brought you out of Ur of the Chaldees, to give you this land, and that you might possess it." And as Augustine says in Book II of the Confessions, the soul, when it withdraws from you, seeks good things outside of you. Now men seek diverse things; but whatever can be found in any life whatsoever, the Lord has promised all of it in God. For some place the highest good in an abundance of riches, through which they can arrive at the greatest dignities; the Lord promises a kingdom which embraces both; but he says that this kingdom is arrived at by the way of poverty, not of riches. Hence, "blessed are the poor." Others arrive at these honors through wars; but the Lord says, "blessed are the meek," etc. Others seek consolations through pleasures; the Lord says, "blessed are they that mourn." Some are unwilling to be subject; the Lord says, "blessed are they that hunger and thirst after justice." Some wish to avoid evil by oppressing their subjects; the Lord says, "blessed are the merciful," etc. Some place the vision of God in the contemplation of truth in this present life; the Lord promises it in the homeland; hence "blessed are the clean of heart," etc. And it must be noted that these rewards which the Lord touches on here can be had in two ways, namely perfectly and consummately, and thus only in the homeland; and by way of a beginning and imperfectly, and thus in this present life. Hence the saints have a certain beginning of that beatitude. And because in this life those things cannot be unfolded as they will be in the homeland, Augustine therefore expounds them according as they are in this present life: "blessed, therefore, are the poor in spirit" — not only in hope, but also in reality. Luke 17:21: "The kingdom of God is within you." Having laid down these things, then, let us come to the letter of the text. In these beatitudes the Evangelist does two things. First the beatitudes themselves are set down; second, the manifestation of the beatitudes, where he says, "Blessed are they that suffer persecution for justice's sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven," for this is declarative of all the beatitudes. Now virtue does three things: it removes from evil, it works and makes one work good, and it disposes to the best. First, therefore, he determines concerning the first, where he says "blessed are the poor"; concerning the second, where he says "blessed are they that hunger"; concerning the third, where he says "blessed are the clean of heart," he determines. Now virtue removes from three evils: from covetousness, from cruelty or restlessness, and from harmful pleasure. The first is noted where he says "blessed are the poor"; the second where he says "blessed are the merciful"; the third where he says "blessed are they that mourn." He says, therefore, "blessed are the poor," which is read in two ways. First thus: "blessed are the poor," that is, the humble, who esteem themselves poor: for those are truly humble who esteem themselves poor, not only in exterior things, but also in interior things; Psalm 39:18: "But I am a beggar and poor," against that saying of Apocalypse 3:17: "You say, I am rich, and made wealthy, and have need of nothing; and you know not that you are wretched, and miserable, and poor, and blind, and naked," etc. And then what he says, "in spirit," can be read in three ways. For "spirit" is sometimes called man's pride; Isaiah 2:22: "Cease from the man, whose spirit is in his nostrils, because he is reputed high"; Isaiah 25:4: "The spirit of the strong is like a whirlwind beating against a wall." And pride is called "spirit" because just as wineskins are inflated by breath, so men are inflated by pride; Colossians 2:18: "puffed up by the sense of his flesh." Therefore, "blessed are the poor," namely those who have little of the spirit of pride. Or "spirit" is taken for man's will. For some are humble out of necessity, and these are not blessed, but those who aspire to humility are. Third, it is taken for the Holy Spirit; hence "blessed are the poor in spirit," those who are humble through the Holy Spirit. And these two readings return, as it were, to the same thing. And he says "poor in spirit" because humility gives the Holy Spirit; Isaiah 66:2: "To whom shall I have respect, but to him that is poor and little, and of a contrite spirit, and that trembles at my words?" To these poor is promised the kingdom, in which supreme excellence is understood. And although this is bestowed in return for any virtue whatsoever, it is nevertheless given especially to humility, because "everyone who humbles himself shall be exalted," below, chapter 23:12. And Proverbs 29:23: "Glory shall uphold the humble in spirit." Or otherwise, according to Jerome: "poor in spirit," to the letter, in the renunciation of temporal things. And he says "in spirit," because some are poor out of necessity, but to them beatitude is not owed, but to those who are poor by will. And these latter are spoken of in two ways: for even if some have riches, yet they do not have them in their heart; Psalm 61:11: "If riches abound, set not your heart upon them." Others neither have them nor desire them, and this is more secure, because the mind is drawn away from spiritual things by riches; and these are properly called poor in spirit, because acts of the gifts, which are above the human manner, belong to the blessed man; and that a man should cast off all riches, so as not even to desire them in any way, this is above the human manner. To these is promised the kingdom of heaven, in which is noted not only the height of honor, but the abundance of riches; James 2:5: "Has not God chosen the poor in this world, rich in faith?" And note that Moses first promised riches; Deuteronomy 28:1: "The Lord your God will make you higher than all the nations that are upon the earth"; and below: "Blessed shall you be in the city, and blessed in the field." And therefore, that the Lord might distinguish the old law from the new, he first places beatitude in the contempt of temporal riches. Likewise, according to Augustine, note that this beatitude pertains to the gift of fear, because fear, especially filial fear, makes one have reverence toward God, and from this man holds riches in contempt. Isaiah sets down the beatitudes in descending order; Isaiah 11:1-3: "There shall come forth a rod out of the root of Jesse, and a flower shall rise up out of his root, and the spirit of the Lord shall rest upon him: the spirit of wisdom and of understanding, the spirit of counsel and of fortitude, the spirit of knowledge and of godliness, and he shall be filled with the spirit of the fear of the Lord." Christ, conversely, ascends from the gift of fear, that is, from poverty, because Isaiah foretold the coming of Christ to the earth, whereas Christ drew things upward from the earth. "Blessed are the meek." This is the second beatitude; but lest anyone say that poverty alone suffices for beatitude, he shows that it does not suffice: rather, meekness is also required, which tempers anger, just as temperance tempers concupiscence; for he is meek who is not even provoked. Now this can happen through virtue, namely that you not become angry except for a just cause; but if even when you have a just cause you are not provoked, this is above the human manner; and therefore he says "blessed are the meek." For strife arises on account of an abundance of exterior things; and therefore there would never be disturbance, if man did not desire riches; and therefore those who are not meek are not poor in spirit. And for this reason he immediately adds "blessed are the meek." And note that this consists in two things. First, that a man not become angry; second, that if he does become angry, he temper his anger. Thus says Ambrose: "It belongs to the prudent man to temper the movement of anger, nor is it called a lesser virtue to be angry with moderation than not to be angry at all; and I judge the latter to be lighter, the former stronger," etc. Chrysostom says: "Among many eternal promises he places one earthly one." Hence, to the letter, the meek possess this earth. For many strive at law in order to acquire possessions, but frequently lose life and everything; but frequently the meek have everything; Psalm 36:11: "The meek shall inherit the land." But it is better expounded as referring to the future. And then it can be expounded in many ways. Hilary thus: "they shall possess the earth," that is, the glorified body of Christ, because they will be conformed in their own body to that brightness; Isaiah 33:17: "They shall see the king in his beauty; their eyes shall behold the land afar off"; Philippians 3:21: "He will reform the body of our lowness, made like to the body of his glory." Or otherwise: this earth is now the earth of the dead, because it is subject to corruption, but it will be freed from corruption according to the Apostle, Romans 8:21. Therefore this earth, when it will be made bright and freed from the servitude of corruption, will be called the land of the living. Or by "earth" is understood the empyrean heaven, in which the blessed are: and it is called earth, because as earth stands to heaven, so that heaven stands to the heaven of the holy Trinity. Or, "they shall possess the earth," that is, their own glorified body. Augustine expounds it metaphorically, and says that by this is to be understood a certain solidity of the saints in the knowledge of the first truth; Psalm 26:13: "I believe to see the good things of the Lord in the land of the living." This second beatitude is adapted to the gift of piety, because those properly become angry who are not content with the divine ordination. "Blessed are they that mourn," etc. Two beatitudes have been set down, by which we are drawn away from the evil of covetousness and of cruelty; here a third is set down, by which we are drawn away from the evil of harmful or noxious pleasure: and this is "blessed are they that mourn." In the Old Testament earthly things were promised, and earthly gladness; Jeremiah 31:12: "They shall flow together to the good things of the Lord, for the corn, and the wine, and the oil," etc.; and afterward: "Then shall the virgin rejoice in the dance, the young men and the old together." But by contrast the Lord places beatitude in mourning. Now it must be noted that not every kind of weeping can be called mourning, but that by which one weeps for a dead person dear to oneself: for the Lord speaks here by way of excess. Just as above, "blessed are the poor," so here he makes mention of the greatest mourning; for just as those who weep for the dead receive no consolation, so the Lord wishes our life to be in mourning; Jeremiah 6:26: "Make yourself a mourning as for an only son, a bitter lamentation," etc. And this mourning can be expounded in three ways. First, for sins not only one's own but also those of others: for if we mourn carnally for the dead, much more should we mourn spiritually; 1 Kings 16:1: "How long will you mourn for Saul?" etc. Jeremiah 9:1: "Who will give water to my head, and a fountain of tears to my eyes? And I will weep day and night for the slain of the daughter of my people." Now this beatitude is quite fittingly placed after the one before. For someone might say: it suffices not to do evil; and this is true from the beginning, before sin; but after sin has been committed, it does not suffice unless you make satisfaction. Second, it can be taken of mourning for the sojourn of the present misery; Psalm 119:5: "Woe is me, that my sojourning is prolonged." This is the "watering from above and from below" of which Joshua 15:19 speaks: "weep for your sins, and for the sojourning in the heavenly homeland." Third, according to Augustine, for the mourning which men have for the joys of the world, which they leave behind in coming to Christ: for some men die to the world, and the world dies to them; Galatians 6:14: "By whom the world is crucified to me, and I to the world." Now just as we mourn over the dead, so they mourn: because it cannot be that, in giving something up, they do not feel some sorrow. Now to this threefold mourning a threefold consolation corresponds: for to mourning for sins is given the remission of sins, which David sought, saying, Psalm 50:14: "Restore to me the joy of your salvation." To the delay of the heavenly homeland, and to the sojourn of the present misery, corresponds the consolation of eternal life, of which Jeremiah 31:13: "I will turn their mourning into joy, and will comfort them, and make them joyful after their sorrow"; and Isaiah 66:13: "In Jerusalem you shall be comforted." Third, to mourning corresponds the consolation of divine love: for when someone grieves over the loss of a beloved thing, he receives consolation if he acquires another thing more beloved. Hence men are consoled when, in place of temporal things, they receive spiritual and eternal ones, which is to receive the Holy Spirit; wherefore he is called the Paraclete, John 15:26. For through the Holy Spirit, who is divine love, men will rejoice; John 16:20: "Your sorrow shall be turned into joy." And it must be noted that this beatitude is appropriated to the gift of knowledge, because those mourn who recognize the miseries of others; hence of certain people who do not have this knowledge it is said, Wisdom 14:22: "Living in a great war of ignorance, they call so many and so great evils peace"; conversely, Ecclesiastes 1:18: "He who adds knowledge, adds also labor." And it must be noted that these rewards are so ordered that each successive one adds something over the first. For first he said "blessed are the poor, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven"; afterward, "for they shall possess the land": for it is more to possess than merely to have. Likewise, afterward, "for they shall be comforted": for it is more to be comforted than to possess, for some possess these things but do not delight in them. Following upon the beatitudes which pertain to the removal of evil, here is set down the beatitude which pertains to the working of good. Now our good is twofold, namely of justice and of mercy. And therefore he sets down two things. As to the first he says, "blessed are they that hunger and thirst after justice." Justice is taken in three ways, according to Chrysostom and the Philosopher. Sometimes it is taken for every virtue: and every virtue is called legal justice, which prescribes concerning the acts of the virtues. Hence insofar as man obeys the law, he fulfills the work of all the virtues. In another way it is taken as it is a special virtue, one of the four cardinal virtues, which is opposed to avarice, or injustice, and concerns buying, selling, and hiring. What is said here, then, "who hunger after justice," can be understood generally or specially. If it is understood of justice in general, this is said for two reasons. The first is Jerome's, who says that it does not suffice for a man to perform the work of justice, unless he perform it with desire; Psalm 53:8: "I will freely sacrifice to you," etc. And elsewhere, Psalm 41:3: "My soul has thirsted after God, the living fountain," etc. Amos 8:11: "I will send a famine into that land, not a famine of bread, nor a thirst of water, but of hearing the word of God." Therefore there is hunger when someone works with desire. The other reason: justice is twofold, perfect and imperfect. Perfect justice we cannot have in this world, "for if we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us," 1 John 1:8. And Isaiah 64:6: "All our righteousnesses are as a filthy rag." But this we shall have in heaven; Isaiah 60:21: "Your people shall be all just, they shall inherit the land forever." But we can have the desire for justice here; and therefore he says, "blessed are they that hunger and thirst after justice," etc. And this is like what Pythagoras did. For in the time of Pythagoras those who pursued learning were called sophi, that is, wise men; but Pythagoras did not wish to be called sophos, that is, wise, but philosophus, that is, a lover of wisdom: so the Lord wishes that his own be, and be called, lovers of justice. But if it is understood of special justice, which is that man render to each what is his own, it is fittingly said, "blessed are they that hunger," etc.; because hunger and thirst are properly characteristic of the avaricious, since those who desire to possess the goods of others unjustly are never satisfied; hence this hunger of which the Lord speaks is opposed to that, namely to the hunger of the avaricious. And the Lord wishes that we so pant after this justice that we may never, as it were, be satisfied in this life, just as the avaricious man is never satisfied. "Blessed, therefore, are they that hunger and thirst after justice, for they shall be filled." A fitting reward is set down, "they shall be filled," first in the eternal vision, for they shall see God through his essence; Psalm 16:15: "I shall be satisfied when your glory shall appear": for there nothing will remain to be desired; Psalm 102:5: "Who satisfies your desire with good things"; Proverbs 10:24: "The desire of the just shall be granted." Second, in the present life. And this is twofold. One is in spiritual goods, that is, in the fulfilling of God's commandments; John 4:34: "My meat is to do the will of him who sent me, that I may perfect his work": and Augustine expounds it in this way. In another way it is taken of the satisfaction of temporal things. Unjust men are never satisfied, but men who have their limit in justice itself do not go beyond it; Proverbs 13:25: "The just eats and fills his soul." This beatitude, according to Augustine, is reduced to the gift of fortitude, because that a man work justly pertains to fortitude. Likewise it adds something to the reward set down above, because to be filled is to have one's desire wholly fulfilled. Likewise note that first he says "blessed are they that mourn": for when a man is sick, he does not desire to eat, but he begins to desire it when he is beginning to be healed; and so it is in spiritual things, that when men are in sin, they do not feel spiritual hunger, but when they abandon their sins, then they feel it; and therefore he immediately adds "blessed are the merciful": because justice without mercy is cruelty, and mercy without justice is the mother of dissolution. And therefore it is fitting that the two be joined together, according to Proverbs 3:3: "Let mercy and truth not leave you," etc. Psalm 84:11: "Mercy and truth have met each other," etc. "Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy." To be merciful is to have a heart made wretched by the wretchedness of others: now we have mercy over the wretchedness of others when we reckon it, as it were, as our own. Now over our own we grieve, and we strive to drive it away. Therefore you are truly merciful when you strive to drive away the wretchedness of others. Now there is a twofold wretchedness of one's neighbor. The first is in these temporal things, and toward this we ought to have a wretched heart; 1 John 3:17: "He who has the substance of this world, and shall see his brother in need, and shall shut up his heart from him, how does the love of God abide in him?" The second is that by which a man is made wretched through sin: for just as beatitude is in the works of the virtues, so wretchedness properly is in vices; Proverbs 14:34: "Sin makes nations miserable." And therefore when we admonish those who are falling to return, we are merciful; below, 9:36: "And Jesus, seeing the crowds, was moved with mercy." These, therefore, the merciful, are blessed. And why? "For they shall obtain mercy." And it must be known that the gifts of God always exceed our merits; Ecclesiasticus 35:13: "For the Lord is one who repays, and he will repay you sevenfold." Therefore the mercy which the Lord will bestow upon us is much greater than that which we bestow upon our neighbor. This mercy is begun in this life in two ways. First, because sins are forgiven; Psalm 102:3: "Who forgives all your iniquities." Second, because he removes temporal defects, so that he makes his sun to rise; yet it will be perfected in the future, when all wretchedness, both of fault and of punishment, will be removed; Psalm 35:6: "O Lord, your mercy is in heaven." And this is "for they shall obtain mercy." This beatitude is reduced to the gift of counsel, because it is a singular counsel that amid the dangers of this world we should obtain mercy; 1 Timothy 4:8: "Godliness is profitable for all things"; Daniel 4:24: "Let my counsel be acceptable to the king." Thus, then, the acts of the virtues have been set down, by which we are removed from evil and by which we work good. Now are set down the acts by which we are disposed to the best; hence, "blessed are the clean of heart," etc. This beatitude consists in two things: in the vision of God and in the love of neighbor; hence he first sets down the beatitude which pertains to the vision of God, and second the beatitude which pertains to the love of neighbor, where he says "blessed are the peacemakers," etc. He says, therefore, "blessed are the clean of heart, for they shall see God." Here first there is a literal question. For we have it that God cannot be seen: 1 John 4:12: "No man has seen God at any time." And lest anyone should say that, although no one sees him in the present, he will see him in the future, the Apostle removes this, 1 Timothy 6:16: "He inhabits light inaccessible, whom no man has seen, nor can see." But it must be known that on this point there are diverse opinions. For some have held that God is never seen through his essence, but only in some refulgence of his brightness; but the Gloss rejects this, on the text of Exodus 33:20, "Man shall not see me, and live," for two reasons. First, because this is repugnant to the authority of sacred Scripture, 1 John 3:2: "We shall see him as he is." Likewise 1 Corinthians 13:12: "We see now through a glass in a dark manner, but then face to face." Likewise it is repugnant to reason, because the beatitude of man is the ultimate good of man, in which his desire is set at rest. Now it is a natural desire that a man, seeing effects, should inquire concerning the cause: hence too the wonder of the philosophers was the origin of philosophy, because seeing effects they marveled, and sought the cause. This desire, therefore, will not be set at rest, until it arrives at the first cause, which is God, namely at the divine essence itself. He will therefore be seen through his essence. Others have erred even more in holding the contrary: for they said that we shall see the essence of God not only with the eye of the mind, but also with that of the body, and that Christ sees the divine essence with a bodily eye. But this is not fitting: which is clear, first, from the authority set down here, because he would not have said "blessed are the clean of heart," but "blessed are they that have clean and pure eyes." Therefore he gives us to understand that God is seen only by the heart, that is, by the intellect: for "heart" is taken here in the same way as in Ephesians 1:18, "the eyes of your heart being enlightened." Second, because a bodily sense can attain only to its own object; and if it be said that then it will have a greater power, it must be said that then it would not be bodily vision, because the bodily eye sees nothing but colors, and the essence only accidentally, according to Augustine, City of God, last book, chapter 19. Just as when I see a living thing, we can say that I see life, insofar as I see certain signs by which its life is indicated to me; so it will be in the divine vision, because there will be so great a refulgence in the new heaven, and the new earth, and in glorified bodies, that through these we shall be said to see God as it were with bodily eyes. "Blessed, therefore, are the clean of heart," etc. He resolves the text, "no man has seen God at any time," in three ways. First, because not by a comprehensive vision; second, not with bodily eyes; third, not in this life: for if it was granted to anyone to see God in this life, this was because he was totally taken out of himself and raised above the bodily senses. And therefore it is said "blessed are the clean of heart": because just as the eye which sees color must be clear, so must the mind which sees God; Wisdom 1:1: "Seek him in simplicity of heart, for he is found by those who do not tempt him; and he appears to those who have faith in him": for by faith the heart is purified; Acts 15:9: "Purifying their hearts by faith." And because vision will succeed to faith, therefore it is said, "for they shall see God." "Blessed are the clean of heart," namely those who have a general cleanness from alien thoughts, through which their heart is a holy temple of God, in which they see God to be contemplated: for "temple" seems to be named from "contemplating." But specially, "blessed are the clean of heart," that is, those who have cleanness of the flesh: for nothing so impedes spiritual contemplation as uncleanness of the flesh. "Follow peace, and holiness, without which no man shall see God," Hebrews 12:14. And therefore some say that the moral virtues are of profit for the contemplative life, and especially chastity. And according to this, "blessed are the clean of heart" can be understood of the vision proper to this present life: for the saints who have a heart filled with justice see more excellently than others who see through bodily effects; for the nearer effects are, the more God is known through them. Hence the saints, who have justice, charity, and effects of this kind, which are most similar to God, know more than others; Psalm 33:9: "Taste, and see that the Lord is sweet." "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called the children of God." Here is set down the seventh beatitude; and, as has been said, the virtues that dispose to the best dispose to two things, namely to the vision of God and to love. And just as cleanness of heart disposes to the vision of God, so peace disposes to the love of God, by which we are named and are the children of God; and thus it also disposes to the love of neighbor, because, as is said in 1 John 4:20, "he who does not love his brother whom he sees, how can he love God whom he does not see?" And it must be noted that here two rewards of beatitude are set down, namely "blessed are the peacemakers," and "blessed are they that suffer persecution for justice's sake." And all the preceding beatitudes are reduced to these two, and are the effects of all the preceding ones. For what is achieved through poverty of spirit, through mourning, through meekness, except that one should have a clean heart? What through justice and mercy, except that we should have peace? Isaiah 32:17: "The fruit of justice is peace, and the cultivation of justice, quietness and security forever." "Blessed, therefore, are the peacemakers." But it must be seen what peace is, and how we can arrive at it. Peace is the tranquility of order. Now order is the disposition which gives to equal and unequal things their proper places. Therefore peace consists in this, that all things hold their proper places. Hence the mind of man ought, first, to be subject to God. Second, the lower movements and powers, which are common to us and to brute animals, ought to be subject to man: for by reason man rules over the animals; Genesis 1:26: "Let us make man to our image and likeness, and let him have dominion over the fishes of the sea, and the fowls of the air, and the beasts, and the whole earth, and every creeping creature that moves upon the earth." Third, that man have peace toward others, for thus he will be wholly ordered. Now this ordering can exist only in holy men; Psalm 118:165: "Much peace have they that love your name"; Isaiah 48:22: "There is no peace to the wicked": for they cannot have interior peace; Wisdom 14:22: "Living in a great war of ignorance, they call so many and so great evils peace." Such peace the world cannot give; John 14:27: "Not as the world gives do I give to you." Likewise, all this alone does not suffice, but they ought to make peace among those who are at discord; Proverbs 12:20: "Joy follows them that take counsels of peace." Yet it must be known that this peace is begun here, but is not perfected, because no one can have all his brutish movements wholly subject to reason; Romans 7:23: "I see another law in my members, warring against the law of my mind, and captivating me in the law of sin which is in my members." Hence it will be true in eternal life; Psalm 4:9: "In peace, in the very same, I will sleep, and I will rest"; Philippians 4:7: "The peace of God surpasses all understanding." "For they shall be called the children of God," for a threefold reason. The first is, because they have the office of the son of God: for the Son is said to have come into the world for this, that he might gather together the scattered; Ephesians 2:14: "For he is our peace"; Colossians 1:20: "Making peace through the blood of his cross, both as to the things on earth and the things in heaven." Second, because through peace, together with charity, one arrives at the eternal kingdom, in which all are called children of God; Wisdom 5:5: "Behold how they are numbered among the children of God, and their lot is among the saints." Ephesians 4:3: "Careful to keep the unity of the spirit in the bond of peace." Third, because through this man is made like to God, because where there is peace, there is no resistance; but no one can resist God; Job 9:4: "Who has resisted him, and had peace?" And it must be noted that these beatitudes each add something over the one before: for it is more to obtain mercy than to be filled, because to be filled is to be filled with what is proportioned to oneself, but mercy overflows abundantly. Likewise, not all who receive mercy are admitted by the king to see the king. Likewise, it is more to be a son of the king than to see the king. And yet it must be known that by all these one single reward is designated. But why did the Lord wish to signify that by so many things? It must be said that all the things which are divided in lower things are gathered together in higher things. And because in human affairs these are found dispersed, and we are led by the hand through sensible things, therefore the Lord signified that one eternal reward through many things. Now this seventh beatitude is adapted to the gift of wisdom, for wisdom makes one a child of God. Likewise it must be noted that in the seventh beatitude peace is set down, just as on the seventh day there is rest, Genesis 2:2. Following upon this the eighth beatitude is set down, which designates the perfection of all the preceding ones: for then is a man perfect in all of them, when he abandons none of them on account of tribulations; Ecclesiasticus 27:6: "The furnace tries the potter's vessels, and the trial of tribulation just men." "Blessed, therefore, are they that suffer persecution," etc. But someone, perhaps, hearing "blessed are the peacemakers," will say that these are not blessed on account of persecution, because persecution disturbs peace, or takes it away entirely; but certainly not interior peace, only exterior; Psalm 118:165: "Much peace have they that love your law," etc. Now persecution itself does not make one blessed, but its cause: hence he says "for justice's sake"; 1 Peter 3:14: "If you suffer anything for justice's sake, blessed are you." Chrysostom: he does not say "by the pagans and for the faith," but "for justice's sake."