Commentary on Romans (Super Epistolam B. Pauli ad Romanos Lectura)

“"He is a vessel of election to me," and so forth (Acts 9:15). Men are found in Sacred Scripture compared to vessels on account of four things, namely: on account of their constitution, their filling, their use, and their fruit. First, then, as to constitution. For a vessel is subject to the will of the craftsman. Jeremiah 18:4: "He made it another vessel, as it pleased him." So too the constitution of men is subject to the will of God, concerning which it is said in Psalm 99:3: "He made us, and not we ourselves." Hence Isaiah 45:9 says: "Shall the clay say to its potter, What are you doing?" And further on, Romans 9:20: "Shall the thing formed say to him who formed it, Why have you made me thus?" And hence it is that, according to the will of God the craftsman, a diverse constitution of vessels is found. 1 Timothy 2:20: "But in a great house there are not only vessels of gold and silver, but also of wood and of earth." Now blessed Paul, since he is named a vessel of election in the words set before us, what sort of vessel he was is clear from what is said in Ecclesiasticus 50:10: "like a solid vessel of gold, adorned with every precious stone." It was indeed a golden vessel on account of the brightness of wisdom, concerning which can be understood what is said in Genesis 2:12: "and the gold of that land is the best," because, as is said in Proverbs 3:15, it is "more precious than all riches." Hence also blessed Peter bears witness to him, saying, 1 Peter 3:15: "as also our most beloved brother Paul, according to the wisdom given to him, has written to you." It was solid indeed by the power of charity, concerning which it is said in the last chapter of the Canticle: "love is strong as death." Hence he himself also says, Romans 8:38f: "For I am certain that neither death nor life," etc., "will be able to separate us from the charity of God." But it was adorned with every precious stone, namely with all the virtues, concerning which it is said in 1 Corinthians 3:12: "if anyone builds upon this foundation gold, silver, precious stones," and so forth. Hence he himself also says, 2 Corinthians 1:12: "This is our glory, the testimony of our conscience, that in simplicity of heart and in the sincerity of God, and not in carnal wisdom, but in the grace of God, we have conducted ourselves in this world." What sort of vessel this was is clear from the fact that he dispensed such things: for he taught the mysteries of the most excellent divinity, which pertain to wisdom, as is clear in 1 Corinthians 2:6: "we speak wisdom among the perfect"; he also commended charity most excellently, in 1 Corinthians 13; he instructed men concerning the diverse virtues, as is clear in Colossians 3:12: "put on, as the elect of God, holy and beloved, a heart of mercy," and so forth. Second, it also seems to pertain to vessels that they be filled with some liquid, according to that text in 4 Kings 4:5: "they offered the vessels, and she poured out." There is also found among vessels a diversity as to this kind of fullness. For some vessels are found to be of wine, some of oil, and various ones of various kinds. So too men are divinely filled with diverse graces, as it were with diverse liquids, 1 Corinthians 12:8: "to one is given through the Spirit the word of wisdom, to another," and so forth. But this vessel, of which we now treat, was full of a precious liquid, namely the name of Christ, concerning which it is said in Canticle 1:2: "your name is oil poured out." Hence it is said of him, "that he may carry my name." For he seems to have been wholly full of this name, according to that text in Apocalypse 3:12: "I will write upon him my name." For he had this name in the knowledge of his intellect, according to that in 1 Corinthians 2:2: "for I did not judge that I knew anything among you except Christ." He also had this name in the love of his affection, according to that in Romans 8:35: "who shall separate us from the charity of Christ?" And 1 Corinthians, last chapter: "if anyone does not love our Lord Jesus Christ, let him be anathema." He also had it in the whole conduct of his life. Hence he said in Galatians 2:20: "and I live, now not I, but Christ lives in me." Third, as to use, it must be considered that all vessels are appointed to some use, but some to a more honorable one, some to a baser one, according to that in Romans 9:21: "or does the potter of clay not have power, from the same mass, to make one vessel indeed unto honor, but another unto dishonor?" So too men, according to the divine ordination, are appointed to diverse uses, according to that in Ecclesiasticus 33:10-11: "All men are from the ground, and out of the earth, from which Adam was created. In the fullness of his knowledge the Lord distinguished them, and diversified their ways. Some of them he blessed and exalted, and some he cursed and brought low." But this vessel was appointed to a noble use, for it is a vessel that carries the divine name; for it is said, "that he may carry my name," which name indeed needed to be carried because it was far from men, according to that in Isaiah 30:27: "behold, the name of the Lord comes from afar." Now it is far from us on account of sin, according to Psalm 118:155: "salvation is far from sinners." It is also far from us on account of the obscurity of the intellect, whence it is also said of certain persons, Hebrews 11:13, that they were "beholding from afar," and in Numbers 24:17 it is said: "I shall see him, but not now; I shall behold him, but not near." And therefore, just as the angels bring divine illuminations to us, as being distant from God, so the apostles brought the evangelical doctrine from Christ to us. And just as in the Old Testament, after the law of Moses, the prophets are read, who handed down the doctrine of the law to the people, according to that in Malachi 4:4: "remember the law of Moses my servant" — so too in the New Testament, after the Gospel, the doctrine of the apostles is read, who handed down to the faithful what they had heard from the Lord, according to that in 1 Corinthians 11:23: "I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you." Now blessed Paul carried the name of Christ: first, indeed, in the body, by imitating his conduct and passion, according to that in Galatians, last chapter: "for I bear the marks of the Lord Jesus in my body." Second, in the mouth, which is clear from the fact that in his epistles he most frequently names Christ: "for out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaks," as is said in Matthew 12:34. Hence he can be signified by the dove, of which it is said, Genesis 8:11, that it came to the ark carrying an olive branch in its mouth. For since the olive signifies mercy, fittingly by the olive branch is understood the name of Jesus Christ, which likewise signifies mercy, according to that in Matthew 1:21: "you shall call his name Jesus, for he shall save his people from their sins." And he brought this branch, with its leaves green, to the ark — namely, the Church — when he set forth its power and meaning in many ways, showing forth the grace and mercy of Christ. Hence he says, 1 Timothy 1:16: "for this reason I obtained mercy, that in me first Jesus Christ might show forth all patience." And hence it is that, just as among the Scriptures of the Old Testament the Psalms of David, who obtained pardon after sin, are most frequently used in the Church, so in the New Testament the epistles of Paul, who obtained mercy, are frequently used, so that from this sinners might be raised up to hope; although there could also be another reason, namely that in both Scriptures almost the whole doctrine of theology is contained. Third, he carried it not only to those present but also to the absent and to those to come, by handing down the sense of Scripture, according to that in Isaiah 8:1: "take to yourself a great book, and write in it with a man's pen." Now in this office of carrying the name of God, his excellence is shown as to three things. First, as to the grace of election, whence he is called "a vessel of election." Ephesians 1:4: "he chose us in Christ before the foundation of the world." Second, as to fidelity, because he sought nothing of his own but Christ's, according to that in 2 Corinthians 4:5: "for we do not preach ourselves, but Christ Jesus." Hence he says: "he is a vessel of election to me." Third, as to singular excellence, whence he himself says, 1 Corinthians 15:10: "I have labored more abundantly than all of them." Hence he says pointedly, "he is a vessel of election to me," as it were singularly above the others. As to fruit, it must be considered that some are, as it were, useless vessels, either on account of sin or on account of error, according to that in Jeremiah 51:34: "he has made me like an empty vessel." But blessed Paul was pure of sin and of error, hence he was a vessel of election that was useful, according to that in 2 Timothy 2:21: "if anyone cleanses himself from these," namely errors and sins, "he shall be a vessel unto honor, sanctified, useful to the Lord." Hence the usefulness or fruit of this vessel is expressed when it is said, "before the Gentiles," whose teacher he was, according to that in 1 Timothy 2:7: "a teacher of the Gentiles in faith and truth"; "and kings," to whom he announced the faith of Christ, as to Agrippa, as is found in Acts 16:38, and also to Nero and his princes; hence it is said in Philippians 1:12-13: "the things that have happened to me have turned out rather to the advancement of the Gospel, so that my bonds became manifest in Christ in the whole praetorium"; Isaiah 49:7: "kings shall see, and princes shall arise." And "to the children of Israel," against whom he disputed concerning Christ, Acts 9:22: "But Saul increased much more in strength, and confounded the Jews who dwelt at Damascus, affirming that this is the Christ." Thus, therefore, from the words set forth above we can grasp the four causes of this work, namely of the epistles of Paul, which we have at hand. First, indeed, the author, in the vessel. Second, the matter, in the name of Christ, which is the fullness of the vessel, because this whole doctrine is about the doctrine of Christ. Third, the mode, in the use of carrying; for this doctrine is handed down by way of epistles, which were customarily carried by messengers, according to that in 2 Chronicles 30:6: "the couriers went forth with letters from the royal command," and so forth. Fourth, the distinction of the work, in the aforesaid usefulness. For he wrote fourteen epistles, of which nine instruct the Church of the Gentiles; four, the prelates and princes of the Church, that is, kings; one, the people of Israel, namely the one which is to the Hebrews. For this doctrine is wholly about the grace of Christ, which indeed can be considered in three ways. In one way, according as it is in the head himself, namely Christ, and thus it is commended in the epistle to the Hebrews. In another way, according as it is in the principal members of the mystical body, and thus it is commended in the epistles which are to the prelates. Third, according as it is in the mystical body itself, which is the Church, and thus it is commended in the epistles which are sent to the Gentiles, whose distinction is this: for the grace of Christ itself can be considered in three ways. In one way according to itself, and thus it is commended in the epistle to the Romans; in another way according as it is in the sacraments of grace, and thus it is commended in the two epistles to the Corinthians, in the first of which the sacraments themselves are treated, in the second the dignity of the ministers, and in the epistle to the Galatians, in which superfluous sacraments are excluded, against those who wished to join the old sacraments to the new; third, the grace of Christ is considered according to the effect of unity which it produced in the Church. The Apostle, therefore, treats, first, of the institution of ecclesiastical unity in the epistle to the Ephesians; second, of its confirmation and advancement in the epistle to the Philippians; third, of its defense — against errors, indeed, in the epistle to the Colossians; against present persecutions, in the first to the Thessalonians; and against future persecutions, and especially in the time of Antichrist, in the second. But he instructs the prelates of the Churches, both spiritual and temporal. The spiritual, indeed, concerning the institution, instruction, and governance of ecclesiastical unity, in the first to Timothy; concerning firmness against persecutors, in the second; third, concerning defense against heretics, in the epistle to Titus. But the temporal lords he instructs in the epistle to Philemon. And thus the reason for the distinction and order of all the epistles is clear. But it seems that the epistle to the Romans is not first. For he seems to have written earlier to the Corinthians, according to that in Romans, last chapter: "and I commend to you Phoebe, our sister, who is in the ministry of the church which is at Cenchreae," where the port of the Corinthians is. But it must be said that the epistle to the Corinthians is prior in the time of its writing. But the epistle to the Romans is placed first, both on account of the dignity of the Romans, who ruled over the other nations — because here pride, which is "the beginning of all sin," as is said in Ecclesiasticus 10:14, was refuted — and also because the order of doctrine requires this, that grace be considered first in itself before it is considered as it is in the sacraments. Again, it is asked from where the Apostle wrote this epistle. Augustine says that it was from Athens; Jerome, that it was from Corinth. Nor is there a contradiction, because perhaps he began to write it at Athens but finished it at Corinth. Again, an objection is raised against what is said in the Gloss, that certain of the faithful preached to the Romans before Peter. But in the Ecclesiastical History it is said that Peter was the first to preach to them. But it must be understood: first among the apostles, and with a following of great fruit. For before this, Barnabas had preached at Rome, as is found in the Itinerary of Clement.”

“After the Apostle rendered the faithful Romans, to whom he was writing, well disposed toward himself by showing his affection for them, here he begins to instruct them concerning those things which pertain to the evangelical teaching, unto which he had foretold that he was set apart. And first he shows the power of the grace of the gospel; second, he exhorts to the carrying out of the works of this grace, in chapter twelve, at the words "I beseech you therefore." Concerning the first he does two things: first he sets forth what he intends, second he explains what he has proposed, at the words "for it is revealed." Concerning the first he does three things: first he sets forth the power of the grace of the gospel, second he explains it at the words "for the justice," third he confirms his explanation at the words "as it is written." He says therefore first: I am not ashamed of the gospel for this reason, that although, as it is said in 1 Corinthians 1:18, the word of the cross is indeed foolishness to those who perish, yet to us it is the power of God. For it is the power of God. This can be understood in two ways: in one way, because the power of God is manifested in the gospel, according to that word of Psalm 110:6: "He has declared to his people the power of his works"; in another way, because the gospel itself in itself contains the power of God, according to that word of Psalm 68:34: "He will give to his voice the voice of power." Concerning this power three things are to be considered. First indeed, to what this power extends, and this is designated when it is added, "unto salvation." James 1:21: "With meekness receive the engrafted word, which is able to save your souls." This indeed comes about in three ways: in one way, insofar as through the word of the gospel sins are remitted; John 15:3: "Now you are clean because of the word which I have spoken to you." Second, insofar as through the gospel man attains sanctifying grace; John 17:17: "Sanctify them in truth. Your word is truth." Third, insofar as it leads to eternal life; John 6:69: "You have the words of eternal life." Second, by what manner the gospel confers salvation, namely through faith, which is designated when it says "to everyone that believeth." This happens in three ways: first through preaching; Mark, last chapter: "Preach the gospel to every creature; he who believes and is baptized shall be saved." Second through confession; below, 10:10: "with the mouth confession is made unto salvation." Third through Scripture, whence also the written words of the gospel have a saving power, just as blessed Barnabas used to cure the sick by placing the gospel upon them. Yet superstitions of characters are to be avoided, because this is superstitious. Whence, Ezekiel 9:6, those were saved on whose foreheads was written the Tau, which is the sign of the cross. Third, to whom the gospel becomes unto salvation, namely both to Jews and to Gentiles. For God is not the God of the Jews only but also of the Gentiles, below, 3:29, and therefore he adds "to the Jew first, and to the Greek." By "Greek" he means every gentile, because from the Greeks the wisdom of the gentiles arose. But since below, 10:12, it is said "there is no distinction between the Jew and the Greek," how then here "to the Jew first"? It must be said, therefore, that as regards the attaining of the end of salvation there is no distinction between them, for both obtain an equal reward, just as for labor even in the vineyard, both the first and the last received the same denarius, as is said in Matthew 20:1-16. But as regards the order of salvation the Jews are first, because to them the promises were made, as below, 3:2, and it is for their sake that the Gentiles were taken in, as if a branch of a wild olive were grafted onto a good olive tree, as below, 11:24. From them too our Savior was born. John 4:22: "Salvation is from the Jews." He then explains next how the gospel is unto salvation when he says, "for the justice of God is revealed therein from faith to faith." This indeed can be understood in two ways. In one way, of the justice by which God is just, according to that word of Psalm 10:8 (Hebrew numbering, i.e. 11:7): "The Lord is just, and he loves justice." And according to this, the sense is that the justice of God, namely by which he is just in keeping his promises, is revealed in it, namely in the man who believes the gospel, because he believes that God has fulfilled what he promised concerning the sending of Christ; and this "from faith," namely of God who promises, Psalm 144:13: "The Lord is faithful in all his words." "Unto faith," namely of the man who believes. Or, in another way, so that it be understood of the justice of God by which God justifies men. For the justice of men is called that by which men, by their own powers, presume to justify themselves, below, 10:3: "not knowing the justice of God, and seeking to establish their own, they are not subject to the justice of God." This justice indeed is revealed in the gospel, insofar as through the faith of the gospel men are justified at whatever time; whence he adds "from faith unto faith," that is, proceeding from the faith of the Old Testament into the faith of the New Testament, because by both men are justified and saved through the faith of Christ, since by the same faith they believed he would come by which we believe he has come; and therefore it is said in 2 Corinthians 4:13: "having the same spirit of faith, we believe, and therefore we speak also." Or it can be understood as from the faith of the preachers into the faith of the hearers, below, 10:14: "how shall they believe him of whom they have not heard?" Or from the faith of one article into the faith of another, because for justification the faith of all the articles is required. Revelation 1:3: "Blessed is he who reads and hears the words of this prophecy." In another way it can be understood as from present faith into future faith, that is, into the full vision of God, which indeed is called faith by reason of certain and firm knowledge, but this latter by reason of evangelical knowledge. 1 Corinthians 13:12: "We see now through a glass in a dark manner, but then face to face." He proves this explanation, moreover, when he adds, "as it is written, but my just man liveth by faith." This indeed is taken according to the text of the Septuagint. For in our text, which follows the Hebrew truth, it is said, "the just man liveth by his faith." Now he is called "my just man," namely, one justified by me and reckoned just before me, below, 4:2: "for if Abraham was justified by the works of the law, he has glory, but not before God. For what does the Scripture say? Abraham believed God, and it was reputed to him unto justice." Whence from this it is added, "he liveth by faith," namely by the life of grace. Galatians 2:20: "but that I now live in the flesh, I live in the faith of the Son of God." Now four things must be considered here concerning faith. First indeed, what faith is. For it implies a certain assent with certainty, to that which is not seen, arising from the will, because no one believes except willingly, as Augustine says. And according to this, the believer differs from the doubter, who assents to neither side; he also differs from the one who holds an opinion, who assents to one side, not with certainty but with fear of the other; he also differs from the one who has knowledge, who assents through certainty by the necessity of reason. And according to this, faith is a mean between knowledge and opinion. Second, it must be considered whether faith is a virtue. And it is manifest that it is not a virtue if it is taken for that which is believed, according to that saying, "the Catholic faith is this, that we worship one God in Trinity." But if it is taken for the habit by which we believe, then sometimes it is a virtue, sometimes not. For a virtue is the principle of a perfect act. Now an act which depends on two principles cannot be perfect if the perfection proper to either of the principles is lacking: just as horsemanship cannot be perfect if either the horse does not go well, or the rider does not know how to guide the horse. Now the act of faith, which is to believe, depends on the intellect and on the will moving the intellect to assent; whence the act of faith will be perfect if the will is perfected through the habit of charity and the intellect through the habit of faith, but not if the habit of charity is lacking; and therefore faith formed by charity is a virtue, but unformed faith is not. Third, it must be considered that the very same habit of faith, in number, which was unformed without charity, becomes a virtue when charity comes; because, since charity is outside the essence of faith, its substance is not changed by charity's coming and going. Fourth, it must be considered that just as the body lives by the soul with natural life, so the soul lives by God with the life of grace. Now God first dwells in the soul through faith, Ephesians 3:17: "that Christ may dwell through faith in your hearts." Yet this indwelling is not perfect unless faith is formed by charity, which unites us to God by the bond of perfection, as is said in Colossians 3:14. And therefore, what is said here, "he liveth by faith," is to be understood of faith formed by charity. Then, when he says, "for the wrath of God is revealed," he proves what he had said, namely that the power of the grace of the gospel is unto salvation for all men. And first he shows that it is necessary unto salvation; second, that it is efficacious or sufficient, in chapter five, at the words "being justified therefore by faith." Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows that the power of the grace of the gospel is necessary unto salvation for the gentiles, because namely the wisdom in which they trusted could not save them; second he shows that it was necessary for the Jews, because namely circumcision and the law and the other things in which they trusted did not bring them salvation, chapter two, at the words "wherefore thou art inexcusable." Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth what he intends; second he explains what he has proposed, at the words "because that which is known of God." Now he sets forth three things. First indeed the penalty, saying: rightly do I say that in it the justice of God is revealed, for the wrath of God is revealed in it, that is, his vengeance, which is called the wrath of God by a likeness to men who are angry and who seek vengeance outside themselves. Yet God inflicts vengeance out of the tranquility of his mind. Wisdom 12:18: "But thou, our Lord, judgest with tranquility." And concerning this wrath of God it is said in John 3:36: "he who does not believe the Son shall not see life, but the wrath of God abideth on him." Now this is said because certain philosophers used to say that punishments for sins do not come from God, contrary to what is said in Psalm 93:10: "he who chastises the nations, shall he not rebuke?" Whence it is added "from heaven," because they believed that his providence was occupied with heavenly things, in such a way that it did not extend to earthly things. Job 22:14: "he walks about the poles of heaven, and does not consider our affairs." But, as it is said in Psalm 101:20 (i.e. 102:19), "the Lord hath looked down from heaven upon the earth." Or it is said "from heaven" to show their iniquity, because they ought especially from the greatness of the heavens to have understood the power of the creator. Job 20:27: "the heavens shall reveal his iniquity." Or "from heaven," of the one who is to come to judgment. Acts 1:11: "as you have seen him ascending into heaven, so shall he come." Second, he sets down the fault for which the penalty is inflicted. And first indeed the fault which is committed against God, when he adds "against all ungodliness." For just as piety is called the worship which is rendered to God as to the highest parent, so ungodliness is called the sin which is against divine worship. Ezekiel 18:28 (Vulgate numbering): "the wickedness of the wicked shall be upon him." Second, he sets down the fault which is committed toward man, when he says "and injustice." For justice is that by which men come together and share with one another by reason. Job 35:8: "thy justice shall help the son of man." Third, he sets down the knowledge which they had of him, when he adds, "of those men who detain the truth of God," that is, the true knowledge of God, "in injustice," as if held captive. For the true knowledge of God, as far as it is in itself, leads men to good, but it is bound, as if detained in captivity, by the affection of injustice, through which, as Psalm 11:1 (i.e. 12:1) says, "truths are diminished from the sons of men." Then, when he says "because that which is known," he explains what he has proposed, though in reverse order. For first he grants that the wise among the gentiles knew the truth about God; second, he shows that ungodliness and injustice were in them, at the words "so that they are inexcusable"; third, that they incurred the wrath of God, at the words "who, when they knew the justice of God." Concerning the first he does three things. First, what they knew about God; second, he shows from whom they received this kind of knowledge, at the words "for God hath manifested it to them"; third, he shows by what manner, at the words "for the invisible things." He says therefore first: rightly do I say that they detained the truth of God, for there was in them, as regards a certain measure, a true knowledge of God, because "that which is known of God," that is, what is knowable about God by man through reason, "is manifest in them," that is, it is manifest to them from that which is in them, that is, from an intrinsic light. It must be known, therefore, that something concerning God is altogether unknown to man in this life, namely what God is. Whence Paul also found at Athens an altar inscribed: "To the unknown God." And this is so because man's knowledge begins from those things which are connatural to him, namely sensible creatures, which are not proportioned to represent the divine essence. Nevertheless man can, from creatures of this kind, know God in three ways, as Dionysius says in the book On the Divine Names. In one way indeed through causality. For since creatures of this kind are defectible and mutable, they must necessarily be traced back to some immovable and perfect principle. And according to this it is known concerning God that he is. Second, by way of excellence. For not all things are traced back to the first principle as to a proper and univocal cause, as when a man begets a man, but as to a common and surpassing cause. And from this it is known that he is above all things. Third, by way of negation. For if he is a surpassing cause, none of the things which are in creatures can belong properly to him, just as neither is a celestial body properly said to be heavy or light or hot or cold. And according to this we say that God is immovable and infinite and whatever else is said of this kind. Now they had this kind of knowledge through the light of reason implanted in them. Psalm 4:6: "Many say, who showeth us good things? The light of thy countenance, O Lord, is signed upon us." Then, when he says "God hath manifested it to them," he shows by what author this kind of knowledge was manifested to them, and he says that "God hath manifested it to them," according to that saying of Job 35:11: "he teacheth us more than the beasts of the earth." Here it must be considered that one man manifests something to another by unfolding his own conception through certain external signs, for instance through speech or writing, but God manifests something to man in two ways. In one way, by pouring in an interior light, through which man knows, Psalm 42:3: "send forth thy light and thy truth." In another way, by setting forth the exterior signs of his own wisdom, namely sensible creatures. Ecclesiasticus 1:10: "he poured her out," namely wisdom, "upon all his works." Thus, therefore, God manifested it to them, either by pouring in light interiorly, or by setting forth visible creatures exteriorly, in which, as in a certain book, the knowledge of God might be read. Then, when he says "for the invisible things of him, from the creation of the world," etc., he shows by what manner they received this kind of knowledge. Here, first it must be considered what these things are, which they knew about God. And he sets down three. First indeed "the invisible things of him," by which is understood the essence of God, which, as has been said, cannot be seen by us. John 1:18: "no man hath seen God at any time," namely through essence, while living this mortal life. 1 Timothy 1:17: "to the king of ages, immortal, invisible." Now he says "invisible things" in the plural because the essence of God is not known to us according to what it is, namely as it is one in itself. Thus it will be known to us in our homeland, and then "the Lord shall be one, and his name one," as is said in Zechariah, last chapter. But it is manifest to us through certain likenesses found in creatures, which participate in a manifold way in that which is one in God, and according to this our intellect considers the unity of the divine essence under the aspect of goodness, wisdom, power, and the like, which in God are one. He called these therefore "the invisible things of God," because that one thing which corresponds in God to these names, or aspects, is not seen by us. Hebrews 11:3: "that from things invisible, invisible things might be made." Another thing, moreover, which is known about God is "his power," according to which things proceed from him as from a principle; Psalm 146:5 (i.e. 147:5): "great is the Lord, and great is his power." Now the philosophers knew that this power was everlasting, whence it is said "his eternal power also." The third thing known is what he calls "and divinity," to which pertains the fact that they knew God as the ultimate end, toward which all things tend. For the divine good is called the common good which is participated in by all; for this reason he said rather "divinity," which signifies participation, than "deity," which signifies the essence of God. Colossians 2:9: "and in him dwelleth all the fullness of the divinity." Now these three are referred to the three aforesaid ways of knowing. For the invisible things of God are known by way of negation; the eternal power, by way of causality; the divinity, by way of excellence. Second, it must be considered by what medium they knew those things, which is designated when he says "by the things that are made." For just as art is manifested through the works of the artisan, so also the wisdom of God is manifested through creatures. Wisdom 13:5: "for by the greatness of the beauty and of the creature, the creator of them may be known so as to be seen." Third, he shows how through these things God is known, when he says "being understood, are clearly seen." For God can be known by the intellect, not by sense or imagination, which do not transcend bodily things; but "God is a spirit," as is said in John 4:24; Isaiah 52:13: "behold, my servant shall understand." Fourth, it can be designated from what, in this manner, God is known, when he says "from the creation of the world." By this, in one way, "creature" can be understood as man, Mark, last chapter: "preach the gospel to every creature," either because of the excellence of man, who in the order of nature is less than the angels but excels among the lower creatures, according to that saying of Psalm 8:6: "thou hast made him a little lower than the angels, thou hast subjected all things under his feet, sheep and oxen," etc.; or because he communicates with every creature: for he has being in common with stones, life in common with trees, sensation in common with animals, understanding in common with the angels, as Gregory says. In another way it can be understood of universal creation. For no creature, by its own natural powers, can see the essence of God in itself. Whence also of the Seraphim it is said in Isaiah 6:2 that "with two wings they covered their face." But, just as man understands God through visible creatures, so the angel does so through the fact that he understands his own essence. Now "from the creature of the world" can be understood in another way, not as the created thing itself but as the creation of things, as if it were said: from the creation of the world. And then it can be arranged in two ways. In one way, that it be understood that the invisible things of God are understood through the things that are made from the creation of the world, not only through the things that are made in the time of grace. In another way, that it be understood that from the creation of the world men began to know God through the things that are made. Job 36:25: "all men see him." Now the Gloss says that by "the invisible things of God" is understood the person of the Father. 1 Timothy, last chapter: "whom no man among men hath seen," etc. By "the eternal power," the person of the Son, according to that saying of 1 Corinthians 1:24: "Christ, the power of God." By "the divinity," the person of the Holy Spirit, to whom goodness is appropriated. Not that the philosophers, by the guidance of reason, were able to arrive, through the things that are made, at knowledge of the persons as to their proper characteristics, which do not signify a relation of a cause to creatures, but according to what is appropriated. Yet they are said to have fallen short in the third sign, that is, in the Holy Spirit, because they did not posit anything to correspond to the Holy Spirit, just as they posited something to correspond to the Father, namely the first principle itself, and something to correspond to the Son, namely the first created mind, which they called the paternal intellect, as Macrobius says in his book on the Dream of Scipio.”

“After the Apostle has shown that the truth of God was known by the gentiles, he here shows that they are liable to the guilt of impiety and of injustice. And first he shows this with respect to the guilt of impiety, second with respect to the guilt of injustice, at the place "and just as they did not approve," etc. Now someone might believe that they are excused from the guilt of impiety on account of ignorance, just as the Apostle says of himself below, 1 Timothy 1:13: "I obtained mercy, because I did it ignorantly." Therefore he first shows that the gentiles are not excusable, second he sets down their guilt, at the place "and they changed the glory." Concerning the first point it must be considered that ignorance excuses from guilt only when it proceeds in such a way, and causes the guilt, that it is not itself caused by guilt. As when someone, having employed due diligence, while believing he is striking an enemy, strikes his father. But if the ignorance is caused by guilt, the ignorance cannot excuse the subsequent guilt. Hence if someone commits homicide through drunkenness, he is not excused from guilt, because he sinned in making himself drunk; wherefore, according to the Philosopher, he deserves a double penalty. First, therefore, he sets forth what he intends, saying thus: "that which is of God is known to them," so that they are inexcusable, that is, so that they cannot be excused by ignorance — James 4:17: "To him that knoweth to do good, and doth it not, to him it is sin." Below, chapter 2:1: "wherefore he is inexcusable." Second, at the place "because when they knew," etc., he proves what he had said. And first, he shows that their first guilt did not proceed from ignorance; second, that ignorance followed upon this guilt, at the place "but they became vain." Now that their first guilt was not from ignorance is shown by this: that having the knowledge of God, they did not make use of it unto good. Now they knew God in two ways. In one way, as surpassing all things in eminence, and thus they owed him the glory and honor which is owed to what surpasses all else. These, therefore, are called inexcusable because, when they had known God, they did not glorify him as God — either because they did not render him the worship due to him, or because they set a limit to his power and knowledge, withdrawing something from his power and knowledge, contrary to what is said in Ecclesiasticus 43:37: "Glorify the Lord as much as ever you can." Second, they knew him as the cause of all good things. Hence thanksgiving was owed to him in all things, which nevertheless they themselves did not render, but rather ascribed their goods to their own talent and their own power; hence he adds "they gave not thanks," namely to the Lord — 1 Thessalonians, last chapter: "In all things give thanks." Then, when he says "but they became vain," he shows that ignorance followed upon their guilt. And first he sets down what he intends, second he makes his proposal manifest, at the place "saying." First, therefore, he sets forth the guilt which is the cause of the ignorance when he says "they became vain." For that is called vain which does not have stability or firmness. But God alone is of himself immutable — Malachi 3:6: "I am God, and I change not." And therefore only then is the human mind free from vanity, when it leans upon God. But when, having set God aside, it leans upon any creature whatsoever, it falls into vanity — Wisdom 13:1: "All men are vain in whom there is not the knowledge of God," etc.; Psalm 93:11: "The Lord knoweth the thoughts of men, that they are vain." "They became vain in their thoughts," inasmuch as they had confidence in themselves, and not in God, ascribing their goods to themselves and not to God, according to that word of Psalm 11:5: "Our lips," etc. Second, he sets down the ignorance that followed, saying "and it was darkened"; that is, through this that it was darkened, their foolish heart was made, that is, deprived of the light of wisdom, by which man truly knows God. For just as one who turns his bodily eyes away from the material sun falls into bodily darkness, so he who turns away from God, presuming upon himself and not upon God, is spiritually darkened. Proverbs 11:2: "Where humility is" — namely that by which man subjects himself to God — "there is wisdom; where pride is, there is reproach." Matthew 11:25: "Thou hast hid these things from the wise" — namely, as it seemed to them — "and hast revealed them to little ones," that is, to the humble. And concerning these it is found in Ephesians 4:17f.: "The gentiles walk in the vanity of their mind, having their understanding darkened." Then, when he says "saying," he expounds what he had said. And first, how they became vain in their thoughts, when he says "saying that they were wise, they became fools." "Saying," that is, ascribing wisdom to themselves from themselves — Isaiah 5:21: "Woe to you that are wise in your own eyes." Isaiah 19:11: "How will you say to Pharaoh: I am the son of the wise, the son of ancient kings?" etc. Second, he expounds what he had said, "and their foolish heart was darkened," when he says "they became fools," as acting against divine wisdom — Jeremiah 10:14: "Every man is become a fool by his own knowledge," namely, that upon which he presumed. Then, when he says "and they changed the glory," he sets down the sin of the gentiles' impiety. And first, as to how they sinned against the glory of God; second, how they sinned against the truth of his very nature, at the place "who changed the truth." Concerning the first he does two things: first he sets down the guilt of impiety, second the punishment, at the place "wherefore he delivered them up." Their guilt was indeed that, as far as was in them, they transferred the divine honor to another, according to that word of Jeremiah 2:11: "My people have changed their glory into an idol." First, therefore, he sets down what they changed, second that into which they changed it, at the place "into the likeness." Concerning the first, three things are to be attended to on the part of God. First, indeed, his glory, which he touches upon saying "and they changed the glory," which can be understood in two ways. In one way, of the glory by which man glorifies God, rendering to him the worship of latria — 1 Timothy 1:17: "To God alone be honor." This, then, they changed, when they rendered to others the worship owed to God. In another way it can be understood of the glory by which God is glorious in himself, which is incomprehensible and infinite — Proverbs 25:27: "He that is a searcher of majesty, shall be overwhelmed by glory." This glory is nothing other than the very brightness of the divine nature; for "he dwelleth in light inaccessible," 1 Timothy, last chapter. This, however, they changed, when they attributed it to others. For "they gave the incommunicable name to wood and stones," as is said in Wisdom 14:21. Second, incorruptibility is noted, when he says "incorruptible." For he alone is perfectly incorruptible, who is wholly immutable; for every change is a kind of corruption. Hence it is said, 1 Timothy, last chapter: "He alone hath immortality." Third, the sublimity of his nature is noted, when it is said "of God," for as is said in Psalm 47:2: "God is great, the Lord." Now on the part of that into which they changed it, three corresponding things are set down. For, against "glory" he says "into the likeness of an image," that is, into the likeness of some thing expressed by another by way of an image. For it is manifest that the likeness of an image is posterior to that thing of which it is the image. But the glory, or brightness, of God is the principle of every species and form; and thus, when they changed the glory of God into the likeness of an image, they turned the first into the last. Wisdom 14:15: "For a father being afflicted with bitter grief, made to himself the image of his son who was quickly taken away." Against what he had said, "incorruptible," he says "corruptible." Psalm 29:10: "What profit is there in my blood, while I go down to corruption?" Namely, that which is already further corrupted or dead? Wisdom 15:17: "Since he is mortal, he forms with wicked hands a dead thing." Against what he had said, "of God," he sets down "of man." Job 32:21: "I will not accept the person of man, and I will not equal God to man." And, what is more abominable, man transferred the glory of God not only to man, who is made to the image of God, but even to those things which are beneath man; hence he adds "and of birds," as to flying things, "and of four-footed beasts," as to walking things, "and of serpents," as to creeping things. He passes over fish, however, as being more removed from human intercourse. But all these things have been subjected by God to man — Psalm 8:8: "Thou hast subjected all things under his feet." Ezekiel 8:9: "Go in, and see the wicked abominations which they do here. And I went in, and saw; and behold every form of creeping things and of beasts," etc. Now it is to be noted that, as the Gloss says, from the coming of Aeneas it was customary in Italy for images of men to be worshipped, such as of Jupiter, Hercules, and the like. But in the time of Caesar Augustus, Egypt having been conquered, the Romans took up the worship of those who worshipped images of animals, on account of the figures of animals which are marked in the heavens, to which the Egyptians, as devoted to astrology, rendered the worship of divinity. Whence also the Lord removes the sons of Israel, who had been reared in Egypt, from this sort of worship, saying, Deuteronomy 4:19: "Lest perhaps lifting up thy eyes to heaven, thou see the sun and the moon and all the stars of heaven," etc. Then, when he says "wherefore he delivered them up," he sets down the punishment corresponding to this guilt. Concerning which it must be considered that man holds a middle place between God and the brute animals, and communicates with both extremes: with God indeed, according to intellectuality; but with the brute animals, according to sensuality. Just as, therefore, man changed that which is of God all the way down to beasts, so God subjected that which is divine in man according to reason to that which is brutal in him, namely to the desire of sensuality, according to that word of Psalm 48:21: "Man, when he was in honor, did not understand" — namely the likeness of the divine image on account of reason — "he is compared to senseless beasts." This, therefore, is what he says: "wherefore God delivered them up to the desires of their heart," so that their reason should be made subject to the desires of the heart, namely of sensual affection, of which it is said below, 13:14: "Make not provision for the flesh in its desires." This, indeed, is contrary to the natural order of man, according to which reason rules over sensible appetite — Genesis 4:7: "Its appetite shall be under thee, and thou shalt have dominion over it." He therefore leads men into the desires of their heart as into the hand of cruel lords — Isaiah 19:4: "I will deliver Egypt into the hand of cruel lords." Especially, however, does a certain bestial disorder concerning the sensitive appetite pertain to carnal sins. For the pleasures of touch, with which gluttony and lust are concerned, are manifestly common to us and to brutes. And therefore they are the more reproachable, as being the more bestial, as the Philosopher says in Book III of the Ethics. And this is designated when he adds "unto uncleanness," which pertains to carnal sins, according to that word of Ephesians 5:5: "No fornicator, or unclean person" — because, namely, man, through sins of this kind, is above all turned and drawn to that which is beneath himself. For each thing is said to be impure or unclean from admixture with something baser, as silver from admixture with lead. Hence, expounding, he adds "that they should afflict," that is, that with contumelies, that is, with base and unclean acts, they should afflict, that is, infect, "their own bodies among themselves," that is, not as though compelled by others, for instance by barbarians, but they do this of themselves, of their own accord. Below, 9:21: "Or hath not the potter power over the clay, of the same lump to make one vessel unto honor, and another unto dishonor?" Namely unto base use. But since uncleanness of this kind is a sin, it seems that God does not deliver men up into it, because, as is said, James 1:13: "God is not a tempter of evils." It must be said that God is not said to deliver men into uncleanness directly, by inclining man's affection to evil, because God orders all things to himself — Proverbs 16:4: "The Lord hath made all things for himself" — whereas sin is something by turning away from him. But he delivers men indirectly into sin, insofar as he justly withdraws the grace by which men were held back from sinning; just as if someone were to remove a support from under someone, he would be said to cause his fall. And in this way the first sin is the cause of the following sin, while the following is the punishment of the prior. For the evidence of which it must be known that one sin can be the cause of another indirectly and directly. Directly, indeed, insofar as from one sin there is an inclination to another, which happens in three ways. In one way, according to the nature of a final cause; as when someone is incited by avarice or envy to commit homicide. Second, according to the nature of a material cause; as gluttony leads to lust, by furnishing matter. Third, according to the nature of a moving cause; as when from many acts of some sin a habit is generated that induces to a similar sin. Indirectly, however, as when the first sin merits the exclusion of grace, which being withdrawn, man rushes into another sin. And thus the first sin is the cause of the second indirectly, or by accident, as removing an obstacle. But it is to be noted that sin, as such, cannot be a punishment, because we suffer punishment against our will, whereas sin is voluntary, as Augustine says. But because sin has certain things attached to it which are against the will of the sinner, by reason of these, sin is called the punishment of a preceding sin. Now this is, in one way, something preceding the sin, as the withdrawal of grace from which it follows that man sins. In another way, it is something joined to the sin itself, either interiorly, as is the disorder of the soul — whence Augustine says in Book I of the Confessions: "Thou hast commanded, O Lord," and thus it is that every disordered soul is a punishment to itself — or as regards exterior acts, to which difficulties and labors are joined, according to what the wicked say, Wisdom 5:7: "We have walked through difficult ways," etc. Third, as regards that which follows upon sin, such as remorse of conscience, infamy, and the like. Then, when he says "changed," he sets down the guilt of impiety which they committed against the truth of the divine nature. And first he sets down the guilt, second the punishment, at the place "therefore he delivered them up." Now the divine nature can be considered in two ways. In one way, according as it is the ground of knowing, as the first truth, and as to this he says: "because they changed the truth of God into a lie." This indeed can be understood in two ways. In one way, because the true knowledge which they had received from God, they turned by a perverse reasoning to false doctrines, as when they said idols were gods, or that God was not omnipotent, or not omniscient — Jeremiah 9:5: "They have taught their tongue to speak lies." In another way they changed the truth of God into a lie because they attributed the nature of divinity, which is truth itself, to an idol, which is a lie inasmuch as it is not God, as is said in Jeremiah 16:19f.: "Surely our fathers have possessed lies, vanity which hath not profited them. Shall a man make gods unto himself, and these are no gods?" In another way the divine nature can be considered according as it is the principle of being to all things through creation: and thus there is owed to it from man, interiorly indeed, worship according to pious affection — John 9:31: "If any man be a server of God," etc. — but exteriorly, there is owed to it the service of latria, according to that word of Deuteronomy 6:13: "Thou shalt adore the Lord thy God, and him only shalt thou serve." Hence he adds, against them namely: "and worshipped and served the creature rather," etc. For they worshipped the heavenly bodies, and air, and water, and other things of this kind, according to that word of Wisdom 13:2: "or fire, or spirit, or the swift air," etc. And in this he reproves the wise men among the gentiles who, although they never believed there to be any divinity in images, as the followers of Hermes believed, nor believed that the things fabulously said by the poets about the gods were true, nevertheless rendered the worship of divinity to certain creatures, from which they assigned the reason of the fables. As Varro held that the whole world was God on account of its soul, saying that to the whole world, and to all its parts, the worship of divinity could be rendered — namely to the air, which they called Juno, and to water, which they called Liaeus, and so of the others. The Platonists also held that the worship of divinity is owed to all the rational substances which are above us; for instance, to demons, to the souls of the heavenly bodies, to intelligences, that is, to separate substances. Although, however, we ought to show some reverence to those things which are above us, yet not the worship of latria, which consists chiefly in sacrifices and oblation, by which man professes that God is the author of all good things, just as in any kingdom some honor is shown to the supreme lord which it is not lawful to transfer to another. And therefore he adds "who is blessed," that is, whose goodness is manifest — for thus we say that we bless God insofar as we recognize his goodness in our heart and confess it with our mouth. Ecclesiasticus 43:33: "Blessing the Lord, exalt him as much as you can." He adds, moreover, "forever," because his goodness is everlasting, not dependent on another, but the principle of all good. And from this all the worship of latria is owed to him. He adds, moreover, "Amen," to assert an all-encompassing certainty — Isaiah 65:16: "He who is blessed upon the earth shall be blessed in God. Amen," which is the same as "true," or "so be it." Now it seems that the Apostle touches upon a threefold theology of the gentiles. First, indeed, the civil theology, which was observed by the priests in the worship of idols in the temple; and as to this he says: "and they changed the glory of the incorruptible God." Second, the fabulous theology, which the poets handed down in the theaters; and as to this he says: "who changed the truth of God into a lie." Third, the natural theology, which the philosophers observed in the world, worshipping the parts of the world; and as to this he says: "and worshipped and served the creature rather than the Creator."”

“Having set down the fault of impiety, according to which they sinned against the divine nature, he now sets down the punishment — namely, that they were reduced to this, that they should sin against their own nature. And first he sets down the punishment; second, he explains it, at the words "For their women"; third, he shows its fittingness, at the words "and the recompense." He says therefore first, "for this cause" — that is, because they exchanged the truth of God for a lie — "God delivered them up," not indeed by driving them into evil but by abandoning them, "unto the passions of ignominy," that is, to sins against nature, which are called passions insofar as, properly speaking, a passion is said to occur when something is drawn outside the order of its own nature — as when water is heated, or when a man falls ill. Hence, because through sins of this kind man withdraws from the natural order, they are fittingly called passions; below, chapter 7:5: "the passions of sins." Now they are called passions of ignominy because they are not worthy of being named, according to that saying, Ephesians 5:15: "the things that are done by them in secret, it is shameful even to speak of." For if the sins of the flesh are commonly reproached because through them man is brought down to what is bestial in man, much more so the sin against nature, through which man falls even below bestial nature. Hosea 4:7: "I will change their glory into shame." Then, when he says "For their women," etc., he explains what he had said — first as regards women, second as regards males, at the words "and likewise the males." He says therefore first: I say that they were delivered up unto the passions of ignominy for this reason, that "their women exchanged the natural use for that use which is against nature." 1 Corinthians 11:14: "does not nature itself teach you." Isaiah 24:5: "they have changed the law, they have broken the everlasting covenant" — that is, the natural law. Now it must be considered that something is against the nature of man in two ways. In one way, against the nature of man's constitutive difference, which is rational; and in this way every sin is said to be against the nature of man, inasmuch as it is against right reason. Hence Damascene also says, in Book II, that a sinning angel was turned from that which is according to nature to that which is beyond nature. In another way, something is said to be against the nature of man by reason of his genus, which is animal. Now it is manifest that, according to the intention of nature, the commingling of the sexes in animals is ordered to the act of generation; hence every mode of commingling from which generation cannot follow is against the nature of man insofar as he is an animal. And according to this it is said in the Gloss: "the natural use is that a man and a woman come together in one act of intercourse; but it is against nature that a male should defile a male, and a woman a woman." And the same reasoning holds for every act of intercourse from which generation cannot follow. Then, when he says "and likewise," he explains it as regards the males, who, namely, having left the natural use of the woman, "burned" — that is, they burned beyond the bounds of nature, according to that saying, Psalm 117:12: "they burned like fire among thorns" — "and this in their desires," namely carnal ones, "the males with the males, working that which is filthy." Ezekiel 16:37: "I will uncover your shame before them," etc. Then, when he says "and the recompense," he shows this punishment to be fitting to the fault, saying, "receiving in themselves" — that is, in the deformation of their own nature — "the recompense of their error," namely, by which they exchanged the truth of God for a lie — "recompense," that is, the retribution which it was fitting that they should receive, according to the order of justice, by which it was owed that those who had been injurious to the nature of God — by attributing to creatures what is proper to him — should become contumelious in their own nature. And although "recompense" properly seems to sound in a good sense, nevertheless here it is taken for any retribution whatsoever, even in evil things, according to the manner in which it is said below, 6:23: "the wages of sin is death." Micah 1:7: "their rewards shall be burned with fire." Now it must be noted that the Apostle quite reasonably sets down the vices against nature — which are the gravest among carnal sins — as the punishment of idolatry, because they seem to have begun at the same time as idolatry, namely in the time of Abraham, when idolatry is believed to have begun. Hence it is also then that they are first read to have been punished, in the Sodomites, as in Genesis 19. Likewise, as idolatry grew, vices of this kind grew along with it. Hence it is said, 2 Maccabees 4:12ff., that Jason dared, right under the citadel itself, to place the finest of the young men in brothels. Now this was not the beginning but a certain increase and advance of a gentile and foreign manner of life. Then, when he says "and as they did not approve," he shows them to have been subject to justice. And first he shows from what prior fault they came into these sins; second, he enumerates the distinctions of these sins, at the words "filled with all iniquity." Now he sets down the preceding fault when he says, "and as they did not approve of having God in their knowledge." This can be understood in two ways. In one way, because although by the light of reason, through visible creatures, they were able to have true knowledge of God, nevertheless, so that they might sin more freely, "they did not approve" — that is, they did not consent — that they themselves should have God in their knowledge. Job 21:14: "depart from us, we desire not the knowledge of your ways." In another way, it can be understood that they did not approve that God should have human deeds in his knowledge, according to that saying, Psalm 93:7: "they said, the Lord shall not see, neither shall God understand." And according to this sense, the punishment fittingly corresponds to this fault, when it is added, "God delivered them up to a reprobate sense." Now this "sense" of man is said to be not the exterior sense, by which sensible things are known, but the interior, according to which he judges about things to be done, according to that saying, Wisdom 6:16: "to think upon her is a consummate understanding." Now the sense is called reprobate whereby someone has a judgment about things to be done that is to be reprobated, according to that saying, 2 Timothy 3:8: "men corrupted in mind, reprobate concerning the faith." Jeremiah 6:30: "call them reprobate silver." And therefore he adds, that they should do the things that are not fitting, that is, the things that are discordant from right reason. Wisdom 3:11: "their works are unprofitable." Now it is fitting that those who sinned against the knowledge of God — either unwilling to know him, or not thinking that he could be known — should be delivered over into a perversity of sense. Hence it is also said, Wisdom 14:31: "the punishment of sinners always walks abroad unto the transgression of the just." Then, when he says "filled," etc., he enumerates works of this unfitting kind. And first, he sets down that which is general, saying "filled with all iniquity," because, as it is said in 1 John 3:4, every sin is iniquity. For just as every virtue, insofar as it carries out the precept of the law, has the character of justice, so too every sin, insofar as it is discordant from the rule of the divine law, has the character of iniquity. And thus in Sacred Scripture sins are chiefly reproved under this name. Now he aggravates their fault in two ways. First, indeed, intensively, through his saying "filled." For he seems to be filled with iniquity whose affection is wholly disposed toward sinning, according to that saying, Psalm 13:3: "whose mouth is full of cursing and bitterness." Second, extensively, namely because they sinned not only in one thing but in all things. Wisdom 14:27: "the worship of unspeakable idols is the cause of every evil." Consequently, when he says "malice," he enumerates the sins in particular. And first as regards transgression, which is opposed to the negative precepts; second as regards omission, which is opposed to the affirmative precepts, at the word "proud." Concerning the first he does two things: first he sets down the sins by which someone is made worse in himself; second, the sins by which someone becomes harmful to his neighbor, at the word "wickedness." Concerning the first, he sets down first that which is general, when he says "malice," which is a vicious habit, opposed to virtue. Hence those who sin from malice are said to sin from habit. Psalm 51:3: "why do you glory in malice?" In particular he sets down the sin by which someone is disordered as regards the appetite for bodily delights, when he says "fornication." For although fornication properly belongs to harlots, who prostituted themselves publicly beside the "fornices," that is, the triumphal arches, nevertheless here it is taken for every unlawful intercourse. Tobit 4:13: "attend to yourself, my son, from all fornication." Second, he sets down the vice by which someone is disordered as regards the appetite for external things, when he says "avarice," which is an immoderate appetite for having. Hebrews, last chapter: "let your manners be without avarice, content with such things as you have." Then are set down the sins which tend to the harm of one's neighbor. And first he sets down what is general when he says "wickedness," namely, when someone attempts what he cannot carry out; which happens chiefly with regard to the harming of one's neighbors, whom one is sometimes not able to harm as much as one would wish. Psalm 7:10: "the wickedness of sinners shall be brought to an end." Then he sets down the root of these sins, saying "full of envy," which is sorrow over another's good, from which someone is incited to harm another. Wisdom 2:24: "by the envy of the devil, death entered into the world." After this are set down the harms, and first the manifest ones — as regards deeds, when he says "murders," which are the chief harms. Hosea 4:2: "cursing, and lying, and killing, and theft, and adultery have overflowed." Now he says "murders" in the plural, because murder consists not only in deed but also in will. 1 John 3:5: "he who hates his brother is a murderer" — namely, one who hates unto killing. And as regards words, when he says "contention." Now contention is an assault upon the truth accompanied by confidence of clamor. Proverbs 20:3: "it is an honor for a man to separate himself from contentions." Then he sets down the hidden harms, and first that which is general, when he says "guile," namely, when one thing is feigned and another is done. Jeremiah 9:8: "their tongue is a wounding arrow, it has spoken deceit; with his mouth one speaks peace with his friend, and secretly he lays snares for him." After this he sets down the interior root of these harms, when he says "malignity," which implies an evil fire, that is, an evil affection in the heart, according to that saying, Psalm 27:3: "they speak peace with their neighbor, but evils are in their hearts." Psalm 5:6: "the malignant shall not dwell near you." Consequently he sets down the hidden harms which are done chiefly by words, when he says "whisperers," namely, those who secretly whisper into people's ears so as to sow discord among them. Ecclesiasticus 18:15: "the whisperer and the double-tongued is cursed among the people; for he has troubled many that were at peace." "Detractors," namely, those who secretly detract from someone's reputation, that is, saying evil things about him while he is unaware. Ecclesiastes 10:11: "if a serpent bites in silence, he is no better off who detracts secretly." And lest these sins be thought light, because they are committed by the mouth alone, he adds "hateful to God." For they assault, above all, that which God loves in men, namely mutual love. John 15:12: "this is my commandment, that you love one another." Hence it is said, Proverbs 6:16: "there are six things which the Lord hates, and the seventh his soul detests" — namely, him who sows discord among brothers. He adds, moreover, "contumelious," namely, those who inflict evils to the face. 1 Timothy 1:13: "who before was a blasphemer, and a persecutor, and contumelious." Thus, then, these three vices agree in their matter, because all of them speak evil of one's neighbor. But they differ in their end, for the whisperer aims at discord, the detractor at infamy, the contumelious man at injury. Consequently he sets down the sins that pertain to omission, and first he sets down the root of these sins when he says "proud." For the proud are so called as it were going beyond themselves through a disordered appetite for excellence; for they wish to be over others, not to be under another's rule, and therefore they omit the precepts. Ecclesiasticus 10:15: "the beginning of all sin is pride," which is true as regards turning away from God, not as regards turning toward a changeable good. For it is said, 1 Timothy, last chapter: "the root of all evils is covetousness." Second, he sets down the progress of pride, from which first arises in the heart "elation," namely, that a man lifts himself up above others. Luke 18:11: "I am not as the rest of men." Hence it is said against the haughty, that saying, Psalm 130:1: "neither have my eyes been lifted up." Second, from pride there arises in deed "a presumption of novelties," and as regards this he adds "inventors of evil things"; for since good things have already been instituted by God and by men, it follows that they themselves devise new evils. Isaiah 3:8: "their devisings are against the Lord." Consequently the omissions themselves are set down. And first with respect to superiors; hence, as regards parents, he says "disobedient to parents," against that which is said, Ephesians 6:1: "children, obey your parents in the Lord." As regards God he says "foolish," that is, acting against divine reverence. Job 28:28: "behold, the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom; and to depart from evil, that is understanding." Second, he sets down the omission as regards oneself, when he says "without order," in dress and in gait. Ecclesiasticus 19:27: "the attire of the body, and the laughter of the teeth, and the gait of a man, show what he is." Some, however, are blamed, Isaiah 3:16, for walking with an ordered gait, because that ordering exceeded the common manner of the men among whom they lived. Third, he sets down the omission as regards equals, toward whom we ought to have, first, affection in the heart; against which he says "without affection." Proverbs 12:10: "the bowels of the wicked are cruel." 2 Timothy 3:2: "men shall be lovers of themselves" — namely, and not of others. Second, a man ought to show them social intercourse; against which he adds "without covenant," namely, whereby they do not live together sociably with others. Judges 18:27ff.: "they struck them with the edge of the sword, because they had no society or dealings with any man." Ecclesiastes 4:10: "woe to him that is alone, for when he falls," etc. Fourth, as regards inferiors, he adds "without mercy," which we owe to show to the wretched. James 2:13: "judgment shall be without mercy to him that has not shown mercy," etc. Then, when he says "who, whereas they had known the justice," he shows them to be liable to wrath, or to divine vengeance. Concerning this, three things are to be considered: first, their natural disposition, because, although they knew God to be just and to have all other perfections, they did not believe that he would inflict punishment for sins. Zephaniah 1:12: "they say in their hearts, the Lord will not do good, nor will he do evil." And this is what he says: "who, whereas they had known the justice of God, did not understand." Second, the punishment owed to their sins, when he says "they are worthy of death." Below, 6:23: "the wages of sin is death." For it is fitting that the soul, which deserts God, should be deserted by its own body through bodily death, and finally be deserted by God through eternal death, of which it is said in Psalm 33:22: "the death of the wicked is the worst," and Revelation 20:6: "over these the second death shall have no power." Third, it must be considered to whom such punishment is owed. And, first, to those who do such things, namely the aforesaid sins, according to that saying, Psalm 5:7: "you hate all who work iniquity; you shall destroy all who speak a lie." And not only to those who do them, but also to those who consent to those who do them. And this in two ways. In one way directly, either by praising the sin, according to that saying, Psalm 9:24: "the sinner is praised in the desires of his soul" — or also by furnishing counsel and favor, according to that saying, 2 Chronicles 19:2: "you give help to the wicked." In another way indirectly, when one does not reprove or impede in whatever way, if he can, and especially if it falls to him by office — just as the sins of his sons were imputed to Eli, as is evident in 1 Kings 3:13. Now the Apostle says this especially on account of certain wise men among the Gentiles, who, even if they did not worship idols, nevertheless did not resist those who did worship them.”

“After the Apostle has shown that the Gentiles were not justified by the knowledge of truth which they had, here he shows that neither were the Jews justified by those things in which they gloried. And thus for both, the power of evangelical grace is necessary for salvation. First, therefore, he says that the Jews are not justified by the law. Second, that they are not justified by lineage, in which they gloried, chapter 3: "What advantage then is there?" Third, that they are not justified by circumcision, chapter 4: "What then shall we say?" Concerning the first point it must be considered that the Jews and the Gentiles, converted to the faith, judged one another concerning their former life. For the Jews reproached the Gentiles, that living without the law of God, they sacrificed to idols. But the Gentiles reproached the Jews, that having received the law of God, they did not keep it. First, therefore, he charges both with disordered judgment; second, he shows specifically that the Jews were not worthy of reward, because the things in which they gloried were not sufficient for salvation, at the place "for not the hearers of the law..." Concerning the first he does two things. First he refutes human judgment; second he establishes and commends the divine judgment, at the place "for we know..." Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth that those who mutually judge one another are inexcusable; second he assigns the reason, at the place "for wherein..." First, therefore, he concludes from the foregoing, saying: because the Gentiles held back in injustice the truth known of God, "O man, whoever you are that judges another man, you are inexcusable," just as he said above: "so that they are inexcusable." But he adds "every one," as if to say, whoever you are, whether Gentile or Jew — because even the Gentile, of whom it seemed more likely, cannot be excused by ignorance, as was shown above. 1 Corinthians 4:5: "Judge not before the time." Then, when he says "for wherein," he assigns the reason, excluding the cause of excuse: first, indeed, ignorance; second, innocence, at the place "for the same things." Ignorance indeed is excluded by the judgment itself. For whoever judges someone as doing evil shows that he knows that thing to be evil, and from this he shows himself to be condemnable. And this is what he says: therefore, I say, you are inexcusable, for wherein you judge another as doing evil, you condemn yourself, that is, you show yourself to be condemnable. Matthew 7:1: "Judge not, and you shall not be judged." It must not be believed, however, that every judgment is a cause of condemnation. For there is a threefold judgment. One indeed just, namely that which is made according to the rule of justice. Wisdom 1:1: "Love justice, you that judge the earth." Another is unjust judgment, namely that which is made against the rule of justice. Wisdom 6:5: "Whereas you were ministers of his kingdom, you have not judged rightly." There is, moreover, a third, rash judgment, against which it is said, Ecclesiastes 5:1: "Do not speak anything rashly." This indeed is committed in two ways. In one way, when someone proceeds concerning that judgment which has been entrusted to him without due knowledge of the truth; against which it is said, Job 29:6: "The cause which I knew not, I searched out most diligently." In another way, when someone usurps to himself judgment concerning hidden things, of which God alone has the right to judge; against which it is said, 1 Corinthians 4:5: "Judge not before the time, until the Lord come, who will bring to light," etc. There is, moreover, something hidden which pertains to the knowledge of God alone, not only with respect to us, but according to its own nature. First, indeed, the thought of the heart, according to that word, Jeremiah 17:9-10: "The heart of man is perverse and unsearchable, who shall know it? I am the Lord who search the heart, and prove the reins." Second, the contingent future, according to that word, Isaiah 41:23: "Show the things that are to come hereafter, and we shall know that you are gods." And therefore, as Augustine says in his work On the Lord's Sermon on the Mount: "There are two things in which we ought to beware of rash judgment: when it is uncertain with what intention a thing was done, or when it is uncertain what someone will turn out to be, who now appears either good or evil." The first judgment, therefore, is not a cause of condemnation, but the second and the third are. Then, when he says "for the same things," he excludes another cause of excuse, namely innocence. As if to say: therefore you who judge others condemn yourself, because you do the same things which you judge, that is, the things for which you condemn others, and thus it appears that you act against conscience. Matthew 7:3: "But why do you see the mote in the eye," etc. It must be known, however, that not always, when someone judges another concerning a sin which he himself commits, does he by this very fact always acquire condemnation for himself, because he does not always sin mortally in judging thus; nevertheless he always manifests his own damnation. For if he is publicly in the sin concerning which he judges another, he seems to give scandal by judging, unless perhaps he humbly reproves himself together with the other, groaning for his own sin. But if he is secretly in the same sin, he does not sin in judging another for the same sin, especially with humility and an effort to rise again, as Augustine says in the book On the Lord's Sermon on the Mount: "let us first consider, when necessity compels us to reprove someone, whether it is such a vice as we never had — and then let us consider that we too could have had it — or such as we had and now no longer have; and then let the common frailty touch our memory, so that mercy, not hatred, may go before that correction. But if we find ourselves to be in the same vice, let us not chide, but groan together, and invite the other to grieve along with us equally." Then, when he says "for we know," he establishes and commends the divine judgment. And concerning this he does three things. First he sets forth the truth of the divine judgment; second he excludes the contrary opinion, at the place "do you think"; third he manifests the truth, at the place "who will render to every man." He says, therefore, first: I say this, that you condemn yourself when you do the same things which you judge — for we know, that is, we hold it for certain, that the judgment of God is against those who do such things, that is, the divine judgment hangs over them. Job 19:29: "The sword is the avenger of iniquity, and know that there is a judgment." Ecclesiastes, last chapter: "All things that are done, God will bring into judgment." Likewise we know that this judgment is according to truth. Psalm 95:13: "He shall judge the world in equity." But the judgment of man, even if he judges justly, is not always according to the truth of the matter, but according to the statements of witnesses, which sometimes disagree with the truth. But this is not the case in the divine judgment, because, as he himself says, Jeremiah 29:23: "I am the judge and the witness." Nor is he deceived by false allegations, according to that word, Job 41:3: "I will not spare him for words of power, and framed to entreat." Then, when he says "but do you think," he excludes the contrary opinion, and first he sets it forth; second he assigns its cause, at the place "or do you despise the riches"; third he disproves it, at the place "do you not know." He says, therefore, first: I have thus said that the judgment of God according to truth is against those who do such things — but do you not, O man, whoever you are, who judge those who do such things and yet do them yourself, fear the judgment of the one above you? Do you think that you will escape the judgment of God? As if to say: if you think this, your estimation is false. Psalm 138:7: "Whither shall I go from your spirit? Or whither shall I flee from your face?" Job 11:20: "Flight shall perish from them." Then, when he says "or the riches," he shows the cause of this false estimation. For because man is not immediately punished by God for sin, he supposes that he is not to be punished, against what is said in Ecclesiasticus 5:4: "Do not say in your heart: I have sinned, and what sad thing has befallen me? For the Most High is a patient rewarder." And Ecclesiastes 8:11: "For because sentence is not speedily pronounced against the evil, the children of men commit evils without any fear." Nevertheless, the sinner, from the fact that he does evil a hundred times and is sustained through patience, ought not to despise this, but to note that it is good to those who fear him. And therefore here he says "or do you despise," according to that word, Proverbs 18:3: "The wicked man, when he has come into the depth of sins, despises." "Riches," that is, abundance. Ephesians 2:3: "God, who is rich in mercy." "Of his goodness," namely, by which he pours out good things upon us, according to that word, Psalm 144:16: "You open your hand, and fill all things with goodness." For the good, according to Dionysius, implies the nature of self-diffusion. Lamentations 3:25: "The Lord is good to them that hope in him." "And of patience," namely, by which he bears with those who sin gravely and out of malice. Psalm 7:12: "God is a just judge, and patient; is he angry every day?" "And of longsuffering," namely, by which he bears for a long time with men who sin out of weakness, yet who remain long in sin. 2 Peter, last chapter: "Account the longsuffering of our Lord Jesus Christ as salvation." Then, when he says "do you not know," he disproves the aforesaid cause, namely the contempt of divine patience, and first he demonstrates the fruit of divine patience; second, the danger of contempt, at the place "but according to your hardness." He says, therefore, first: it is a wonder that you despise it — do you not then know that the benignity of God, in delaying punishment, leads you to penance? 2 Peter 3:9: "The Lord delays not his promise, but deals patiently for your sake, not willing that any should perish, but that all should return to penance." Isaiah 30:18: "God waits for you, that he may have mercy on you." But the Apostle seems, as is said in the Gloss, to have touched upon three degrees of sinners: first indeed, of those who promise themselves impunity; second, of those who despise the goodness of God; third, of those who are ignorant. Whence the Gloss says: "You sin, O man, while you promise yourself impunity; you sin more gravely because you despise; and you sin most gravely, because you are ignorant." But this seems to be false, for ignorance lightens a sin rather than aggravates it. It must, therefore, according to some, be understood that "most gravely" means "most perilously," because he who is ignorant of his sin does not seek a remedy. Or "most gravely" on account of the species of ignorance which pertains to unbelief, which is the gravest sin. Whence it is said, 1 Corinthians 14:38: "If any man knows not, he shall not be known." Or "most gravely" in the genus of ingratitude. Augustine: "For he is more ungrateful who does not recognize a benefit than he who diminishes it, which is to despise it." Then, when he says "according to your hardness," he shows the danger of contempt, saying "but according to your hardness," namely, because he is not softened by the benefits of divine goodness. Ecclesiasticus 3:27: "A hard heart shall fear evil at the last," etc. — "and impenitent heart," namely, one which is not bent to penance by the patience and longsuffering of God. Jeremiah 8:6: "There is none that does penance for his sin." "You treasure up to yourself wrath," that is, you multiply for yourself the guilt of punishment. James 5:3: "You have stored up to yourselves wrath, against the last days." Whence here follows "against the day of wrath," that is, against the day of judgment, of which it is said, Zephaniah 1:15: "That day is a day of wrath" — because, namely, God does not now inflict the vengeance which he will then inflict, according to that word, Psalm 74:3: "When I shall take a time, I will judge justices." "And of the revelation of the just judgment of God," because then the justice of the divine judgment will be revealed, which now is not believed to exist, or does not seem to be just. Isaiah 56:1: "My salvation is near to come, and my justice to be revealed." And because the Gloss says here that by hardness and impenitent heart is signified the sin against the Holy Spirit, which is unforgivable, it is therefore necessary to see what the sin against the Holy Spirit is, and how it is unforgivable. It must therefore be known that, according to the ancient doctors of the Church who lived before Augustine, namely Athanasius, Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, and Chrysostom, the sin against the Holy Spirit is called the blasphemy by which the works of the Holy Spirit are attributed to an unclean spirit, as is clear from Matthew 12:31. This indeed is said to be unforgivable both in this age and in the future, because for this sin the Jews were punished, both in this age through the Romans and in the future through the demons. Or because it has no ground of excuse, such as the blasphemy had which they spoke against Christ insofar as he was the son of man, according to that word, Matthew 11:19: "Behold a man that is a glutton and a drinker of wine." To which they could be led through the weakness of the flesh, just as also in the Old Testament, because the children of Israel murmured on account of the lack of bread and water, as is read in Exodus 16:2-3, which was, as it were, human and easily forgivable; but what they said afterward before the idol, as in Exodus 32:4: "These are your gods, O Israel, that brought you out of the land of Egypt" — in this they sinned against the Holy Spirit, namely, by attributing the work of God to demons. Whence also their sin is called unforgivable, since the Lord adds: "But I, in the day of vengeance, will visit their sin." Augustine, however, says that the sin against the Holy Spirit is a word or blasphemy which someone speaks against the Holy Spirit, through whom the remission of sins comes about, according to that word, John 20:22-23: "Receive the Holy Spirit; whose sins you shall forgive," etc. And this indeed in heart, namely in mouth and in deed, when someone perseveres in sin all the way to the very last end. And thus final impenitence is the sin against the Spirit, of which it is manifest that it is unforgivable. But the later masters say that the sin against the Holy Spirit is that which is committed out of set malice, which is contrary to that which is appropriated to the Holy Spirit, namely goodness — just as also the sin against the Son of God is that which is from ignorance, which is opposed to wisdom, which is appropriated to the Son. And likewise the sin against the Father can be said to be that which is from weakness, which is contrary to power, which is appropriated to the Father. Thus, therefore, the sin which is against the Father or the Son is called forgivable, because from this very fact the sin seems to have some excuse, since it is committed out of ignorance or out of weakness. But that which is committed out of set malice has in itself no cause of excuse; and therefore it is called unforgivable, because it does not have in itself that from which it might be forgiven, although sometimes God, out of his own goodness, forgives it, just as sometimes, by his own power, he cures a disease which is in itself incurable. And according to this, six species of the sin against the Holy Spirit are assigned, excluding those things through which sin is forgiven. Of these, the first two are taken with respect to those things which stand on the side of God, namely, hope of divine mercy, to which despair is opposed, and fear of divine justice, to which presumption is opposed. But the other two are taken on the side of man, namely, contempt of the changeable good, to which obstinacy is opposed — which here is called hardness, by which, namely, someone fixes his mind firmly upon sin — and settled resolve of turning away from God, to which impenitent heart is opposed, namely, which never proposes to return to God through penance. But the others are taken on the side of the gifts of God, one of which is faith, according to that word, Proverbs 15:27: "By faith sins are purged," and to this is opposed the impugning of known truth. The other is charity, according to that word, Proverbs 10:12: "Charity covers all sins," and to this is opposed envy of a brother's grace.”

“After the Apostle has set forth the truth of the divine judgment, the contrary opinion having been excluded, here he manifests the truth of the divine judgment, and first he sets forth what he intends; second he manifests his proposition, at the place "to them indeed who according to patience." He first sets forth the truth of the divine judgment as to two things, namely, as to works and as to persons. As to works indeed, because in the present life he does not render according to works, but sometimes bestows grace upon those doing evil, as upon Paul the Apostle himself, who, having formerly been a blasphemer and persecutor, obtained mercy, as is said in 1 Timothy 1:13. But this will not be the case on the day of judgment, when it will be the time of judging according to justice. Psalm 74:3: "When I shall take a time, I will judge justices." And therefore it is said elsewhere: "Render to them according to the works of their hands." As to persons, the truth of the divine judgment is observed, because equality of retribution will be kept as to all. 2 Corinthians 5:10: "We must all be manifested." But it seems that the future retribution will not be according to works, because for a temporal sin an eternal punishment will be repaid. But it must be said that, as Augustine says in Book 21 of the City of God: in the retribution of justice an equality of time between the fault and the punishment is not considered, because even according to human judgment, for the fault of adultery, which is committed in a brief hour, the punishment of death is inflicted; in which the lawgiver does not attend to the length of the killing, but rather to the fact that through death one is perpetually excluded from the society of the living. And thus also in its own way man is punished with an eternal punishment for a temporal fault. And therefore it is not a marvel if sins committed against charity, through which namely there is fellowship between God and men, are eternally punished by the divine judgment. And that this indeed is just appears from three things. First, from the infinite dignity of God against whom the sin is committed. For the more grave one sins, the greater is the dignity of the person against whom one sins, just as he sins more who strikes a prince than he who strikes a private person. And so, since the fault of mortal sin is in a certain way infinite, it is necessary that an infinite punishment correspond to it. And so, since it cannot be infinite according to intensity, it remains that it be infinite according to duration. Second, it appears from the will by which one sins. For whoever sins mortally, turned away from the unchangeable good, establishes his end in a changeable good, as the fornicator in the love of the flesh, the miser in money. And because the end is desired for its own sake, whoever desires the end is borne toward it, wishing to obtain it always, if nothing else opposes. Hence he who sins mortally has the will of remaining perpetually in the sin, except perhaps accidentally, as when he fears punishment, or some other impediment. Hence it is fitting that, since man according to his will desires to hold the sin perpetually, he be punished eternally for it. For God, who is the inspector of the heart, attends especially to the will of the one sinning. Third, on the part of the effect of sin, which is the withdrawal of grace, from which it follows that man, as far as is in himself, remains perpetually in sin, from which he cannot depart except through the help of grace. But it is not fitting that, while the fault endures, the punishment should cease, and therefore the punishment endures in perpetuity. But that which is said, "to render to each according to his works," is not to be understood according to an equality of works, because the reward exceeds the merit, but according to proportion, because he will repay good things to the good, and better things to the better. And the same reasoning holds for evil things. Then, when he says "to them indeed who according to patience," he manifests his proposition, and first as to works, second as to persons, at the place "upon every soul." But as to works he shows the truth of the divine judgment, first indeed in the good, second in the evil, at the place "but to them that are of contention." Concerning the first, two things must be considered, namely merit and reward. For merit three things concur. First indeed, patience. This can be understood, in one way, of the patience of God, of which it was said above: "Or the riches of his goodness and patience," so that those may be understood to be "according to patience of good work," namely, those disposed who make good use of God's patience by doing good. In another way it can be understood of the patience of man, which likewise can be understood in two ways. In one way, according as patience implies the toleration of adversities with equanimity of heart. This indeed is necessary, that someone not desist from a good work on account of the evils he suffers, and this is what he says, "according to patience of good work." James 1:4: "Patience has a perfect work." Luke 21:19: "In your patience you shall possess your souls." Second, patience can be understood for longanimity, or for perseverance, namely that someone not withdraw from a good work on account of weariness. James, last chapter: "Be patient, brothers, until the coming of the Lord." Hebrews 10:36: "Patience is necessary for you." The second is the goodness of the work, which indeed is called good according to its ordering to the due end, and according as it agrees with the due rule, which is the law of God and human reason. Galatians, last chapter: "Let us not fail in doing good." Third, the rectitude of intention is touched upon in "seeking eternal life," namely that in the evils which a man suffers, or in the goods which he does, he not seek something temporal, but eternal. Matthew 6:33: "Seek first the kingdom of God." On the part of the reward also he touches upon three things, of which the first is glory, which signifies the brightness of the saints, even the intrinsic brightness, with which they will be filled in mind, according to that word of Isaiah 58:11: "He will fill your soul with splendors"; and the exterior brightness, with which they will shine in body. Matthew 13:43: "The just shall shine as the sun in the kingdom of their Father." Psalm 149:5: "The saints shall rejoice in glory." Second, honor is touched upon, by which is signified the dignity of the saints, and the reverence which is shown to them by every creature. For they will be kings and priests. Revelation 5:10: "You have made us a kingdom and priests to our God." And further they will be counted among the sons of God, according to that word of Wisdom 5:5: "Behold how they are counted among the sons of God." Psalm 138:17: "Your friends, O God, are made exceedingly honorable." Third, incorruption is touched upon, namely because that glory and honor will not be transitory, as are the things which are in this world. 1 Corinthians 9:25: "They indeed that they may receive a corruptible crown, but we an incorruptible one." Then, when he says "but to them," he shows the truth of the divine judgment in the evil, in which likewise fault and punishment are touched upon. And as to fault, three things are touched upon, of which the first is the obstinacy of contention. This indeed, first, can be understood of man toward God, who calls him to himself by benefits, against whom man seems to contend by resisting the divine benefits. Deuteronomy 31:27: "While I am yet living and going in with you, you have always acted contentiously against the Lord." Second, it can be understood of man's contention against the faith. 2 Timothy 2:14: "Contend not in words." Third, it can be understood of the contention of men with one another, which is contrary to charity, which is the mother of the virtues. James 3:16: "Where there is jealousy and contention, there is inconstancy and every depraved work." Second is set down their hardness, namely, of those who do not acquiesce to the truth. This can, in one way, be understood of the truth of faith. John 8:45: "If I speak the truth, why do you not believe me?" In another way, of the truth of divine justice, to which they do not acquiesce, not believing the truth of the divine judgment. Ezekiel 18:29: "You have said, the way of the Lord is not equal." Third, it can be understood of the truth of life, to which those do not acquiesce who live perversely. John 3:21: "He who does the truth comes to the light." Third, malice is touched upon in this, that he says, "but give credit to iniquity," either because they consent to those persuading them to iniquity. Proverbs 17:4: "The wicked man obeys an unjust tongue." Or because they believe in the impunity of sins, which would redound to an iniquity in God. Ecclesiasticus 5:4: "Say not, I have sinned, and what sad thing has befallen me?" Or they give credit to iniquity, that is, to infidelity, namely to a doctrine which is against the faith. 2 Thessalonians 2:11: "That all may be judged who have not believed the truth, but have consented to iniquity." But on the part of the punishment, four things are set down, which indeed can be distinguished in two ways. In one way, so that wrath, that is, bodily punishment and vengeance, is understood to be after the judgment. Zephaniah 1:15: "That day, a day of wrath." But indignation is in the judgment, when the impious will be indignant at themselves, which arises from the sins which they committed. Wisdom 5:6: "We have erred from the way of truth." But tribulation and anguish pertain to the soul separated from the body before the resurrection. Proverbs 1:27: "When tribulation and anguish shall come upon you." Or in another way they can be distinguished, so that the first two are taken on the part of God, whose wrath is called the disposition to punish, which is horrible to the wicked. Revelation 6:16: "They shall say to the mountains and the rocks: Fall upon us," and so forth. His indignation is referred to this, that he will reckon sinners unworthy of eternal life. Psalm 94:11: "To whom I swore in my wrath, that they shall not enter." But the others are taken on the part of man. And tribulation indeed is named from the tribulus, which pricks, whence to tribulation can pertain everything that inflicts pain. Zephaniah 1:14: "The voice of the day of the Lord is bitter, the mighty man shall be in tribulation there." But anguish is so called from this, that the mind of man is straitened, not being able to find a remedy against the evils which he fears, or already suffers. Daniel 13:22: "I am straitened on every side, and I know not what to choose." Job 27:9: "Will God hear his cry, when distress shall come upon him?" Then, when he says "upon every soul," he shows the truth of the divine judgment as to persons. And first he sets forth the equity of this; second he assigns the reason, at the place "for there is no respect of persons"; third he manifests the reason, at the place "for whosoever." He shows the truth of the divine judgment as to persons, first in the evil, when he says "upon every soul of man that worketh," that is, against every soul, because just as the glory of the saints comes from the soul to the body, so the punishment of the reprobate is first and principally in the soul and second in the body, which on account of the defect or fault of the soul will rise again passible. Ezekiel 18:4: "The soul that sins, the same shall die." But he says "of the Jew first, and of the Greek," because a greater punishment was owed to the Jews as those knowing the will of God through the law. Luke 12:47: "The servant who knew the will of his lord, and did not do it," etc., "shall be beaten deservedly with many stripes." And likewise Christians, as to the same sin, for instance adultery or theft, are punished with a graver punishment than unbelievers. Hebrews 10:29: "How much more, do you think, does he deserve worse punishments, who has trodden underfoot the Son of God," and so on. But as to the whole punishment, the punishment of unbelievers is graver on account of the sin of unbelief, which is most grave. Whence it is said in 1 Peter 3, that the wrath of God remains upon unbelievers. Second, he manifests it in the good, and he sets down first the two things which he said above, glory and honor; but the third, namely peace, he sets in the place of incorruption, which peace includes, and comprehends many other things. For the peace of man cannot be perfect as long as someone fears that he will lose the goods which he has, but then does someone have the true peace of heart, when he has all the things which he desires and does not fear to lose them. Isaiah 32:18: "My people shall sit in the beauty of peace." And in these things too he attributes the primacy to the Jews, because to them the promises were made first, and the Gentiles entered into their promises. John 4:38: "Others have labored, and you have entered into their labors." Then, when he says "for there is no respect of persons," he assigns the reason for what has been said, namely because there is no respect of persons with God. Acts 10:34: "God is not a respecter of persons." But respect of persons is opposed to distributive justice, by which someone distributes to each according to the dignity of persons; therefore there is respect of persons when, apart from dignity, more or less is given to someone. But this occurs apart from dignity, when it is done not on account of a condition, but on account of the person, which is taken as the cause. For this is to take the cause, namely as it were a rule of acting; but respect of persons occurs on account of the person, as though the person itself were taken as the cause of doing something. For instance, if someone gives to another, on account of kinship, more of his patrimonial goods, this is not respect of persons, because kinship is a fitting cause on account of which he ought to have more of such goods. But if, on account of kinship, some prelate gives to someone more of ecclesiastical goods, this can pertain to respect of persons, if no other fitness concurs. For kinship is not a fitting reason for the distribution of spiritual goods. Therefore, since God does all things by a most fitting reason, respect of persons does not fall upon him. For it is said in Wisdom 8:1, that "he disposes all things sweetly." But he seems to be a respecter of persons, because he leaves some sinners in their sins, and calls others to himself. But it must be said that respect of persons is opposed to justice, whence it has place in those things which are given from debt, which justice attends to. But God calls sinners to repentance not from debt, but gratuitously. "For if from works, it is now not from grace," as is said below, chapter 11:6; and Titus 3:5: "Not by the works of justice which we have done, but according to his mercy he saved us." But in such benefits given freely, it is permitted not only to God, but even to man, to give to whomever he wishes. Matthew 20:15: "Is it not lawful for me to do what I will?" Then, when he says "for whosoever," he expounds the aforesaid reason. For that there is no respect of persons with God is clear from this, that all who sin are punished. Whence first he speaks as to those who did not receive the law, saying that whoever has sinned "without the law," namely of Moses, received from God, "shall perish without the law," that is, shall be condemned, not on account of the transgression of the law. Job 4:20: "Because none understand, they shall perish forever." Second, he speaks as to those who received the written law, and says that whoever have sinned "in the law," that is, after the written law, "shall be judged by the law," that is, on account of the fact that they transgressed the precept of the law. John 12:48: "The word that I have spoken to you, that shall judge him in the last day." But some have taken an occasion of error from this manner of speaking. For because the Apostle does not say, "whoever has sinned in the law shall perish by the law," as he had said of those who are without the law, that they shall perish without the law, they believed that those who sin after having received the law are judged in some way, namely in the present life, but nevertheless do not perish. But, as the Gloss says, what Christian would say that a Jew does not perish if he does not believe in Christ, since the Lord says that it will be more tolerable for Sodom in the day of judgment than for them? As is found in Matthew 10:15. Whence Ezekiel 18:32: "I do not wish the death of the sinner." But he uses such a diversity in speaking, because, as Gregory says in the Moralia on that word of Job 36:6, "He gives judgment to the poor," some in the future judgment will perish, but will not be judged, that is, the impious, who are without faith and the law of God. Psalm 1:5: "The impious shall not rise again in judgment," namely because there is no place for disputing against him who is wholly estranged from God. John 3:18: "He who does not believe is already judged." But others, who sin having received the law of God and the faith, will so perish that they will also be judged, as it were with a certain disputation made with them. Whence it is said in Ezekiel 34:17: "Behold, I judge between cattle and cattle, of rams and of he-goats." Just as also a king, as Gregory says, condemns enemies without a hearing, but citizens with a diligent hearing.”

“After the Apostle has confuted human judgment, by which the gentiles and the Jews mutually judged one another, and has commended the divine judgment, here he proceeds to show that those things in which the Jews gloried do not suffice for salvation; and first he shows his proposition, second he resolves the things that could be said to the contrary, in chapter 3, at the words "What then is the advantage," and so on. The Jews gloried in two things, namely the law and circumcision, which was not from the law of Moses but from the fathers, as is said in John 7:22. First, therefore, he shows that the law heard or received did not suffice for salvation. Second, he shows the same concerning circumcision, at the words "Circumcision indeed," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he proposes what he intends, second he manifests his proposition, at the words "For when the gentiles." Concerning the first he proposes two things, one by excluding, the other by asserting. For he excludes what the Jews supposed, namely that they were justified by the mere hearing of the law. Hence he says: thus it has been said, "they that have sinned in the law shall be judged by the law; for not the hearers of the law," by the very fact that they hear the law, "are just before God," even if they are reputed just before men. Matthew 7:26: "He that heareth my words and doth them not, shall be like a foolish man." James 1:23: "If any be a hearer of the word, and not a doer," and so on. Second, he affirms that the doers of the law are just, when he says "but the doers of the law shall be justified." Matthew 7:24: "Every one therefore that heareth my words and doth them shall be likened to a man," and so on. James 1:22: "Be ye doers of the word, and not hearers only," and Psalm 110:10: "A good understanding to all that do it." But concerning this second point there seems to be a difficulty, since below, at 3:20, it is said: "By the works of the law no flesh shall be justified before him." Therefore no one is justified by the fact that they do the works of the law. But it must be said that "to be justified" can be taken in three ways. In one way it can be taken as to reputation, so that someone is then said to be justified when he is reputed just. Ezekiel 16:51: "Thou hast justified thy sisters," namely by reputation. And according to this, "the doers of the law shall be justified" can be understood, that is, they shall be reputed just before God and men. Second, by the execution of justice, inasmuch as they carry out works of justice. Luke 18:14: "This man went down into his house justified," namely because he had done the public work of justice by confessing his sin. And in this way is verified what is here said, "the doers of the law shall be justified," namely by carrying out the justice of the law. Third, justification can be taken as to the cause of justice, so that he is said to be justified who newly receives justice, as below, 5:1: "Being justified therefore by faith," and so on. But it is not understood here in this sense, that the doers of the law are justified as though they acquired justice through the works of the law. For this indeed cannot be, neither as to the ceremonial works, which did not confer justifying grace, nor even as to the moral works, from which the habit of justice is not acquired, but rather it is through the infused habit of justice that we do works of this kind. Then, when he says "For when the gentiles," he manifests his proposition. And first he shows that the doers of the law, even if they are not hearers, are justified; second, that the hearers of the law without observance of the law are not justified, at the words "But if thou art called a Jew." Concerning the first he does three things. First he sets forth the dignity of those who observe the law without having heard it; second he manifests what he had said, at the words "who show the work of the law"; third he proves it, at the words "their conscience bearing witness to them." Concerning the first he touches three things as regards the gentiles. First, their lack of the law, saying "for when the gentiles who have not the law," namely the divine law, which they have not received. For the law was not given to the gentiles, but to the Jews, according to Ecclesiasticus 24:33: "Moses commanded a law in the precepts of justices, and an inheritance to the house of Jacob, and the promises to Israel." And Psalm 147:20: "He hath not done in like manner to every nation." Deuteronomy 33:4: "Moses commanded us a law, the inheritance of the multitude of Jacob." From which it is clear that the gentiles did not sin by not observing the ceremonial precepts of the law. Second, he commends in them the observance of the law, when he says "do by nature those things that are of the law," that is, the things which the law commands, namely as to the moral precepts, which pertain to the dictate of natural reason, just as it is also said of Job that he was just and upright and fearing God and withdrawing from evil. Hence he himself says: "My foot hath followed his steps, I have kept his ways." But what he says, "by nature," presents a difficulty. For it seems to lend support to the Pelagians, who said that man could keep all the precepts of the law by his own natural powers. Hence "by nature" must be expounded as meaning through nature reformed by grace. For he is speaking of gentiles converted to the faith, who by the help of the grace of Christ had begun to keep the moral precepts of the law. Or "by nature" can be said to mean through the natural law showing them what is to be done, according to Psalm 4:7: "Many say: who sheweth us good things? The light... is signed," etc., which is the light of natural reason, in which is the image of God. And yet this does not exclude that grace is necessary to move the affection, just as also through the law is the knowledge of sin, as is said below, 3:20, and yet further grace is required to move the affection. Third, he shows their dignity, in this namely, that although not having such a law, they "are a law to themselves," inasmuch namely as they perform toward themselves the office of the law, instructing themselves and inducing themselves to the good, because, as the Philosopher says in the Ethics, law is speech having coercive force, proceeding from a certain prudence and intellect. And therefore it is said in 1 Timothy 1:9, that "the law is not made for the just man," that is, he is not compelled by an exterior law, but "is laid down for the unjust," who need to be compelled from without. And this is the highest degree of dignity among men, namely that they are induced to the good not by others but by themselves. The second degree is of those who are induced by another, but without coercion. The third is of those who need coercion in order to become good. The fourth is of those who cannot even be directed to the good by coercion. Jeremiah 2:30: "In vain have I struck your children, they have not received discipline." Then, when he says "who show," he shows how they are a law to themselves, which indeed we can take by way of a likeness to the law that is proposed by an exterior man, which is customarily, on account of weakness and for the sake of memory, committed to writing; and likewise those who observe the law without exterior hearing of the law "show the work of the law written," not indeed in ink, but, first and principally, "by the Spirit of the living God," as is said in 1 Corinthians 3:3. Second, also by human diligence, Proverbs 3:3: "Write them in the tables of thy heart," namely the precepts of wisdom. Hence here too it follows "in their hearts," not on parchment, nor on tables of stone or bronze. Jeremiah 31:33: "I will give my law in their bowels, and in their heart will I write it." Then, when he says "their conscience bearing witness," he proves what he had said, namely that the work of the law is inscribed in their hearts, through certain works which announce a writing of this kind. And, first, he sets down those works, of which one is the testimony of conscience, which he touches when he says "their conscience bearing witness to them," which indeed is nothing other than the application of knowledge one has to judging concerning some work, whether it has been well or ill done. Hence conscience of this kind sometimes gives testimony concerning good, according to 2 Corinthians 1:12: "This is our glory, the testimony of our conscience," but sometimes concerning evil, Ecclesiastes 7:23: "Thy conscience knoweth that thou also hast often spoken evil of others." But no one can bear testimony concerning some work, that it is good or evil, except through having knowledge of the law. Hence this very fact, that conscience bears testimony concerning good or evil, is an evident sign that the work of the law is inscribed in the heart of man. Another work is accusation and defense, which cannot exist without knowledge of the law. And as to this he says "and of their thoughts," that is, by their thoughts, "accusing or also defending," that is, accusing them or defending them, after the manner of the Greeks, who use genitives in place of ablatives. And this "one among another." For there arises in a man, concerning some deed, a certain knowledge that accuses, when for some reason he thinks that he has done ill. Psalm 49:21: "I will reprove thee, and set before thy face." Isaiah 3:9: "The shew of their countenance hath answered them." Sometimes too there arises a certain knowledge that defends, when for some reason he thinks he has done well, according to Job 27:6: "My heart doth not reprehend me in all my life." And between this accusation and defense the testimony of conscience holds a place, by which one stands. It can also be read otherwise, so that it is said "their own conscience bearing witness to them," which conscience namely is not only of works, but also of thoughts, of which namely a man has conscience; but the first reading is better. But because testimony, accusation, and defense have a place in judgment, he treats, second, of judgment of this kind, showing the time when he says "in the day," which he says not to designate a quality of time, but the manifestation of hidden things. 1 Corinthians 4:5: "He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness." Sometimes, however, it is called night on account of the uncertainty of that hour. Matthew 25:6: "At midnight there was a cry made." Now the thoughts accusing or defending are said to be "in the day of judgment," not those which will then exist, because then to each one salvation or damnation will be manifest, but the defense or accusation of the thoughts which now exist, and the testimony of conscience which now exists, will be represented to man on that day, the divine power bringing it about, as Augustine says, in Book 2 of the City of God. But the knowledge of those thoughts which remain in the soul seems to be nothing other, as the Gloss says, than the guilt of punishment or the merit that follows from them. He also shows the author of the judgment, saying "when God shall judge." Psalm 95:13: "He shall judge the world in equity." He also determines concerning what things the judgment will be, when he says "the secrets of men," concerning which men now cannot judge. 1 Corinthians 4:5: "He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness." He also shows the teaching from which faith concerning this judgment is had, when he says "according to my gospel," that is, preached by me. Matthew 12:36: "Every idle word," and so on. Now he says "my gospel," although he could not say "his baptism," and he is a minister of both, because in baptism nothing of man's industry operates, but in preaching the gospel the industry of the preacher operates, Ephesians 3:4: "As you reading may understand my knowledge in the mystery," according as you are able. Afterward he sets down to whom the judgment has been given, when he adds "by Jesus Christ," who namely has been constituted by God "judge of the living and the dead," as is said in Acts 10:42, and John 5:21-22: "The Father hath given all judgment to the Son," who namely will appear in judgment to the good and to the evil: but to the good according to the glory of his divinity, Isaiah 33:17: "They shall see the king in his beauty," but to the evil according to the nature of his humanity, Revelation 1:7: "Every eye shall see him."”

“Having shown that doers of the law are justified even without being hearers, which pertained to the Gentiles, here he shows that hearers are not justified unless they are doers, which pertains to the Jews. First, therefore, he shows the prerogative of the Jews with respect to the reception of the law; second, he sets forth their defect with respect to the transgression of the law, at the place, "Thou therefore that teachest another." Now he sets forth their prerogative in a threefold way. First, with respect to the nation to which the law was given; second, with respect to the law, at "and restest in the law"; third, with respect to the effect or fruit of the law, at "and knowest his will." Now, with respect to the nation, he says, "But if thou art called a Jew," which is an honorable name, according to that word of Psalm 113:2: "Judea was made his sanctuary." John 4:22: "Salvation is of the Jews." Now they are called Jews, not from Judas Machabeus, as some say, perhaps on account of this, that Judas Machabeus gathered together and protected that nation while it existed in dispersion, according to that word of 1 Machabees 3:2ff.: "He fought the battles of Israel with gladness, and enlarged the glory of his people." For the name of the Jews is found before Judas Machabeus, according to that word of Esther 8:16: "To the Jews new light seemed to arise." And therefore it must be said that the Jews are named from Judah the patriarch, Genesis 49:8: "Judah, thee shall thy brethren praise." For when, in the time of Rehoboam, the ten tribes, separating themselves from his kingdom, worshipped the golden calf, they were led away into transmigration by the Assyrians, as is related in 1 Kings 17. Nor does Scripture make mention of their return, but rather the land remained occupied by foreigners, who afterward were called Samaritans. But the two tribes, namely of Judah and Benjamin, adhering to the kingdom of Rehoboam, persevered in the worship of God. And although they were led into the captivity of Babylon, afterward, nevertheless, through Cyrus king of the Persians they were brought back into their own land, as is said in 1 Esdras 1. And because the tribe of Judah was greater, that whole nation was named from it — and not only those who were of the tribe of Benjamin, but also those from the other tribes who, returning, joined themselves to them. Consequently, when he says "and restest in the law," he sets forth their prerogative with respect to the law. And first indeed, with respect to the law itself, when he says "and restest in the law," as it were made certain through it in what is to be believed and in what is to be done. For one who doubts in the intellect does not rest, but is drawn about on both sides; but he who receives the certainty of wisdom rests in mind. Wisdom 8:16: "Entering into my house, I shall rest myself with her." Second, with respect to the lawgiver, when he adds "and gloriest in God," that is, in the worship and knowledge of the one God. Jeremiah 9:24: "In this let him glory that glorieth, to know and to understand me." 1 Corinthians 1:31 and 2 Corinthians 10:17: "He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord." Then, when he adds "and knowest," he sets forth their prerogative with respect to the fruit of the law: first, as it regards man with respect to himself; second, with respect to others, at "thou trustest." Now he sets forth a twofold fruit. The first indeed corresponding to the glory which they had concerning God, when he says "thou knowest his will," namely, what God wills us to do. Below, 12:2: "That you may prove what is the will of God." He sets forth the second fruit, which corresponds to one resting in the law of God, when he says "and approvest the more useful things," that is, thou knowest how to approve by choosing not only the evil from the good, but also the better from the less good. Whence a certain man asked, Matthew 22:36: "Which is the great commandment?" And this, instructed through the law. Psalm 33:12: "Blessed is the man whom thou shalt instruct, O Lord, and shalt teach him out of thy law." Consequently he sets forth the fruits with respect to others, who indeed stand in a threefold way with regard to the knowledge of the law. For some are established wholly in ignorance of the law. In one way indeed through a defect of natural intelligence, just as a man is also said to be bodily blind through a defect of the interior visive power. Isaiah 59:10: "We have groped for the wall like blind men." Now to men of this sort a man cannot furnish the light of knowledge, so that they themselves might be able to see through themselves what is to be done, but a man furnishes them guidance as to the blind, commanding them what they ought to do, although they do not know the reason of the commands — Job 29:15: "I was an eye to the blind" — of whom nevertheless it is said, Matthew 15:14: "They are blind, and leaders of the blind." In another way some are in ignorance through a defect of instruction, who are as it were in outer darkness, not illumined by teaching, to whom a wise man can furnish the light of instruction, that they may understand what is commanded; and this is what he says: "a light of them that are in darkness." Luke 1:79: "To enlighten them that sit in darkness." Second, however, he touches upon those who are on the way to arriving at knowledge, which they have not yet attained. And this, in one way, through a defect of full instruction. And this is what he says: "an instructor of the foolish," that is, of those who have not yet received wisdom, who are said to be instructed, as it were drawn out from rudeness, which is present in all from the beginning, when they are first instructed. Ecclesiasticus 7:25: "Hast thou children? Instruct them." In another way through a defect of age, as children are. And with respect to this he says: "a teacher of infants." Isaiah 33:18: "Where is the teacher of the little ones?" But the third are those who are already advanced in knowledge. And these need to be formed by the wise, so that they may hold the sayings of the wise in authority as a kind of rule or model. And with respect to this he says: "having the form of knowledge." 2 Timothy 1:13: "Hold the form of sound words which thou hast heard of me." And Philippians 3:17: "Observe them who walk so, as you have our model." Now it is necessary that those who are thus formed be instructed by the authority of their elders, that they may know what is handed down in the law, and therefore he says "of knowledge." Wisdom 10:10: "She gave him the knowledge of the saints." And also that they may know what is the true understanding of those things which are handed down in the law. And with respect to this he says "of truth." Psalm 42:3: "Send forth thy light and thy truth." Then, when he says "Thou therefore that teachest another," he shows their defect according to the transgression of the law. And, first, of man toward himself, when he says "Thou therefore that teachest another" — directing him to the good — "teachest not thyself" — directing. And this can be read either as a question, as it were with a certain indignation, or gently, as it were asserting their malice; and it is similar in what follows. Job 4:3: "Behold thou hast taught many," and below: "but now the stroke is come upon thee, and thou hast fainted." Second, he touches upon the defect with respect to one's neighbor. First indeed, with respect to goods which are taken away by theft, when he says: "Thou that preachest that men should not steal, stealest?" Isaiah 1:23: "Thy princes are faithless, companions of thieves." Second, with respect to the joined person, who is polluted through adultery. And with respect to this he says: "Thou that teachest men not to commit adultery, committest adultery?" Hosea 7:4: "They are all adulterers, like an oven." Jeremiah 5:8: "Every one after his neighbor's wife." Third, however, he shows their defect by comparison of them to God, and, first indeed, with respect to this, that they sinned against his worship. And with respect to this he says: "Thou that abhorrest idols" — knowing, namely, from the precept of the law that they are not to be worshipped — "committest sacrilege," namely, by abusing those things which pertain to divine worship. Which indeed they did first in the state of the law, Malachi 1:12: "You say: The table of the Lord is defiled," and afterward by blaspheming Christ, Matthew 12:24: "By Beelzebub the prince," etc. Second, with respect to glory itself, when he says: "Thou that gloriest in the law, through transgression of the law dishonorest God." For just as the observance of the law in good works is an occasion for those who see it to honor God, so also the transgression of the law through evil works is an occasion for those who see it to blaspheme. 1 Peter 2:12: "That, considering you by your good works, they may glorify God." But on the contrary it is said, 1 Timothy 6:1: "Whosoever are servants under the yoke, let them count their masters worthy of all honor, lest the name of the Lord and his doctrine be blasphemed." And therefore in Psalm 118:158 it is said: "I beheld the transgressors, and I pined away." And for this he brings in an authority, adding: "For the name of God through you is blasphemed among the Gentiles" — because, namely, the Gentiles, seeing the evil manner of life of the Jews, reckoned this to come from the evil instruction of the law handed down by God. Now he says "as it is written," namely Isaiah 52:5: "Its rulers act unjustly, and continually, all the day long, my name is blasphemed"; and Ezekiel 36:22, according to another text, where our own reads thus: "I do it not for your sake, O house of Israel, but for my holy name's sake, which you have profaned among the Gentiles." Then, when he says "circumcision," he shows that neither does circumcision suffice for salvation, for the same reason that neither does the law, because, namely, the observance of the law avails without circumcision, whereas circumcision without it, however, does not profit, as has been said above. And concerning this he does three things. First he compares circumcision to circumcised Jews; second, to uncircumcised Gentiles, at "if therefore the uncircumcision"; third he clarifies what he had said, at "for it is not he that is a Jew outwardly." Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows how circumcision profits; second, how it does not profit, at "but if thou be a transgressor," etc. He says therefore first: "Circumcision indeed profits" with respect to the remission of original sin, whence it is said, Genesis 17:14: "The male whose flesh of his foreskin is circumcised," etc. But "to thee," as an adult, it profits in the end only "if thou observe the law," just as profession profits religious, if they observe the rule. For circumcision was, as it were, a certain profession, obliging men to the observance of the law. Galatians 5:3: "I testify to every man circumcising himself, that he is a debtor," etc. Now what the Apostle said — "If you be circumcised, Christ shall profit you nothing" — he speaks with respect to the time after the grace of the Gospel was published; but here he speaks with respect to the time before the passion of Christ, in which circumcision still had its standing. Second, at "but if thou be a transgressor," he shows how circumcision does not profit, saying: "If thou, O Jew, being an adult, art a transgressor of the law, thy circumcision is made uncircumcision," that is, it avails thee no more than uncircumcision, because thou dost not keep what by circumcision thou dost profess — Jeremiah 9:26: "All the nations have uncircumcision, but the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart" — indeed, from this they are the more guilty, because they do not keep what they promised. For "a foolish and faithless promise displeaseth," as is said in Ecclesiastes 5:3. Then, when he says "if therefore the uncircumcision," he compares circumcision to the Gentiles, and this in two ways. First indeed, with respect to this, that the Gentiles have its fruit by observing the law. Whence he says: if circumcision profits along with the observance of the law, but not without it, therefore, "if the uncircumcision," that is, the uncircumcised Gentile, "keep the justices of the law," that is, the just precepts of the law — Psalm 118:86: "All thy commandments are truth" — "shall not his uncircumcision be reputed for circumcision?" As if he were to say: he will have the fruit of true circumcision. For to this end a man is outwardly circumcised in the flesh, that he may, namely, circumcise himself in the heart. Jeremiah 4:4: "Be circumcised to the Lord, and take away the foreskins of your hearts." Second, at "and shall judge," etc., he compares circumcision to the Gentile, showing that on account of the observance of the law he is to be preferred to the Jew. Whence he says: "and the uncircumcision," that is, the uncircumcised Gentile, "fulfilling," that is, accomplishing the commandments of the law, "by nature," that is, through natural reason — as was said above, that they do by nature the things that are of the law — "shall judge," by comparison, "thee," namely the circumcised Jew, "who art a transgressor of the law," by transgressing its precepts, "by the letter," that is, having the law written in letters, "and circumcision," namely, of the flesh. Whence concerning this judgment of comparison it is said, Matthew 12:41: "The men of Nineveh," etc. Then, when he says "for it is not he that is a Jew outwardly," etc., he assigns the reason for what has been said. And first he sets forth the reason; second he proves it, at "whose praise." Concerning the first he does two things. First he assigns the reason why circumcision or Judaism without the observance of the law does not profit; second he assigns the reason why the observance of the law profits without Judaism and circumcision, at "but he that is a Jew in secret." He says therefore that the circumcision of one who transgresses the law is for this reason uncircumcision, and is judged by the uncircumcision which keeps the law, because he is not a true Jew who is a Jew "outwardly," according to carnal generation. Below, 9:6: "For not all who are of the circumcision are Israel, these are Israelites, but they who are children of the promise." And likewise also that is not true circumcision which is manifest in the flesh. For that is a sign, as it is said, Genesis 17:11: "You shall circumcise the flesh of your foreskin, that it may be for a sign of the covenant." But it is not a true sign, unless the thing signified correspond to it. Whence if any Jew were a transgressor of the covenant, his circumcision would not be true, and therefore it is reputed as uncircumcision. Then, when he says "but he that is a Jew in secret," he assigns the reason why the uncircumcision of one who keeps the law is reputed as circumcision and judges carnal circumcision; because, namely, he is truly a Jew who is a Jew "in secret," that is, who holds in the affection of his heart the commandments of the law, which the Jews profess. Matthew 6:6: "Thy Father who seeth in secret," etc. And likewise that is true circumcision which is "of the heart, in the spirit," that is, made through the spirit, by which superfluous thoughts are cut off from the heart. Or "in the spirit," that is, through the spiritual understanding of the law, not the literal. Philippians 3:3: "We are the circumcision, who serve God in the spirit." Then, when he says "whose praise," etc., he proves the reason already given. For it is manifest that in all things the divine judgment is to be preferred to the human. Now those things which appear outwardly, whether it be Judaism or circumcision, are praised by men, but those things which are in secret are praised according to the divine judgment, because, as it is said, 1 Kings 16:7: "Man seeth those things that appear, but God beholdeth the heart," etc. Whence it remains that interior Judaism and circumcision prevails over the exterior. And this is what he says: "whose" — namely, of the interior circumcision — "praise is not of men, but of God." 2 Corinthians 10:18: "For not he who commendeth himself," etc.”

“After the Apostle has shown that Judaism, to which belongs the reception of the law, and circumcision, do not suffice for salvation without the keeping of the law — through which the Gentile, without exterior Judaism and circumcision, obtains the fruit of both — here he raises an objection against what has been said; and first indeed he sets forth the objection, second he resolves it, at the words "much every way." He objects, therefore, first in this way: if it were so, as has been said, that he is not a true Jew, nor is circumcision true, in what is manifest, but in the hidden part of the heart, what advantage then has the Jew? That is, what more has been given to him than to the rest? It seems that nothing has. And this is unfitting, since the Lord said, Deuteronomy 7:6: "The Lord your God has chosen you, that you should be a peculiar people to him." Or what is the profit of circumcision, namely the exterior kind? It seems from what has gone before that there is none, which is unfitting, since it was handed down by God, who says, Isaiah 48:17: "I am the Lord who teaches you profitable things." Then, when he says "much every way," he resolves the aforesaid objection. And first as to the prerogative of Judaism, second as to the profit of circumcision, in chapter 4, at the words "What shall we say then?" Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows the prerogative of the Jews; second he excludes their boasting, by which they proudly preferred themselves to the Gentiles, at the words "What then? Do we excel?" Concerning the first he does three things. First he sets forth what he intends; second he makes it clear, at the words "first indeed"; third he excludes an objection, at the words "for what if some." He says therefore first: the question has been asked what advantage the Jew has; now he has an advantage both as to quantity, which is signified when he says "much," and as to number, which is signified when he says "every way." For they have something more both in the contemplation of divine things, according to Psalm 75:1: "known in Judea," and as to the disposition of temporal things, Psalm 147:20: "He has not done in like manner to every nation." They also have more as to the fathers, as to the promises, and as to the offspring. Below, 9:4: "whose is the adoption of the sons of God, and the glory, and the testament." And in each one of these there is no small excellence but a great and special one, which pertains to what he says, "much." For the greatest good of man is in the knowledge of God, in this, that he cleave to God and be instructed by God, Psalm 93:12: "Blessed is the man whom you shall instruct, O Lord." Then, when he says "first indeed," etc., he makes clear what he had said, saying: "first indeed," that is, the Jews have an advantage above all chiefly because the words of God were entrusted to them, as to friends, John 15:15: "I have called you friends." And this is much, because the words of God are honorable, Psalm 18:10: "the words of the Lord are true, justified in themselves"; they are delightful, Psalm 118:113: "how sweet are your words to my palate"; they are also profitable for not sinning, in the same Psalm: "in my heart I have hidden your words, that I might not sin against you." Then, when he says, "for what if some," he excludes an objection. And first he states it; second he excludes it by leading it to an absurdity, at the words "shall their unbelief"; third he shows that what it is led to is unfitting, at the words "but God is true." Someone could detract from the prerogative of the Jews by objecting their ingratitude, through which they would seem to have lost the dignity of the words of God. Hence he says, "but what if some of them have not believed"; is it not thereby excluded that the Jew has no advantage? According to 2 Peter 2:21: "It would have been better for them not to have known the way of righteousness, than after they had known it, to turn back." Now they did not believe, first indeed, the lawgiver. Psalm 105:24: "They believed not in his word." Second, they did not believe the prophets. Ezekiel 2:6: "They are unbelieving and subverters with you." Third, they did not believe the Son himself. John 8:45: "If I say the truth to you, why do you not believe me?" Then, when he says "shall their unbelief," he excludes the aforesaid objection by leading it to an absurdity, because if, on account of the unbelief of some, the prerogative of the Jews were taken away, it would follow that the unbelief of man would make void the faith of God, which is unfitting. And this is what he says: shall the unbelief of them, namely of those who did not believe, make void the faith of God? This can be understood in two ways. In one way, of the faith by which one believes in God. For it is not the case that, because some did not believe, the faith of those who did believe is made void. For the evil of some existing within a society does not make void the good of others. Ecclesiasticus 33:12: "Some of them he has blessed and exalted, and some he has sanctified and brought near to himself," and so on. This is against those against whom Augustine speaks in his letter to the people of Hippo: "To what other end do these sit, and what else do they discuss, except that, when a bishop, or a cleric, or a monk, or a nun has fallen, they may believe all such persons to be the same, but that not all can be exposed?" In another way it can be understood of the faith by which God is faithful in fulfilling his promises. Hebrews 10:23: "For he is faithful who has promised." Now this fidelity would be made void if, on account of the unbelief of some, it should happen that the Jew had no advantage. For God promised to multiply and magnify that people, as is clear in Genesis 22:16: "I will multiply your seed." Then, when he says "God forbid," "but God is," he shows that it is unfitting that the faith of God should be made void on account of the unbelief of men. And first indeed he brings forward a reason for this; second, an authority, at the words "as it is written"; third, he excludes a false understanding of the author cited, at the words "but if our injustice." Now the reason is taken from this, that God according to himself is true. Jeremiah 10:10: "But the Lord God is true"; 1 John, at the end: "This is the true God and life eternal." And yet every man is a liar. Psalm 115:10: "I said in my excess, every man is a liar." Whence it is clear that the lie of man, or unbelief not cleaving to the truth, does not make void the truth or faith of God. For the clarification of these things it must be known that truth imports the equation of a thing to the intellect. Now a thing is equated to our intellect in one way, and to the divine intellect in another. For our intellect receives its knowledge from things, and therefore the cause and measure of its truth is the being of the thing: for from the fact that a thing is, or is not, a statement is said to be true or false, according to the Philosopher. Hence our intellect can be true or false, insofar as it can be equated or not equated. But that which can be and not be needs another agent in order that it may be, without which it remains non-being. For just as air, without something illuminating it, remains dark, so too our intellect, unless it is illumined by the first truth, remains of itself in falsehood. Hence, as far as it is of itself, every man is a liar as to intellect, but he is true only insofar as he participates in divine truth. Psalm 42:3: "Send forth your light and your truth." But the divine intellect is the cause and measure of things, and for this reason, according to itself, it is unfailingly true, and each and every thing is true insofar as it is conformed to it. Similarly, according as truth is taken on the part of the thing, man of himself does not have truth, because his nature is convertible into nothing; but only the divine nature, which is neither from nothing nor convertible into nothing, has truth of itself. Then, when he says "as it is written," he proves the same point by the authority of Psalm 50:6, where it is read thus: "that you may be justified in your words, and may overcome when you are judged." How this bears upon the point at hand can be seen, if the preceding words of the Psalm are considered. For it is stated beforehand, "against you only have I sinned," and then follows, "that you may be justified in your words, and may overcome when you are judged." For God had promised David, through the prophet Nathan, that he would establish his kingdom forever in his seed, as is found in 2 Kings 7:12. But afterward, when he fell into a grave sin, namely of adultery and murder, as is read in 2 Kings 11:2 and following, on account of this sin it was said by some that God would not keep his promise to him. The intention of the Psalmist, then, is to say two things. First indeed, that on account of his sin the justice of God is not changed, to which it pertains that he should fulfill his words. And as to this he says, "that you may be justified in your words," that is, that from this you may appear just in your words, because on account of my sins you do not pass them by. Proverbs 8:8: "All my words are right." Psalm 144:13: "The Lord is faithful in all his words." Second, that the divine promise should surpass human judgment. And this is what he says, "may overcome," namely by keeping your promise, "when you are judged," namely by men: that is, that on account of my sins you would not fulfill it. Below, 12:21: "Be not overcome by evil, but overcome evil by good." This is said to man, which pertains much more to God. Now it must be considered that the promise made to David by God was to be fulfilled concerning the incarnation of Christ. Hence it pertained to the prophecy of predestination, according to which something is promised as to be fulfilled in every way; but what is promised or foretold according to the prophecy of threat is not foretold as to be fulfilled in every way, but according as human merits, which can change, require. And therefore, if what was promised to David had not come to pass, it would have prejudiced the divine justice. But if what is promised through the prophecy of threat does not come to pass, it does not prejudice the divine justice, but signifies a change of human merits. Hence he says, Jeremiah 18:7: "I will suddenly speak against a nation and against a kingdom, to root up, and to pull down, and to destroy it. If that nation shall repent," etc., "I also will repent of the evil," and so on. Thus, then, it is clear according to this sense, that the sin of man does not exclude the divine fidelity. There are also given other senses of this authority in the Gloss, which do not pertain so much to the intention of the Apostle, the first of which is, that these words, which are set down here, are to be joined with what the Psalmist had said before: "Wash me yet more from my iniquity," to this end, namely, "that you may be justified," that is, that you may appear just, "in your words," in which you promised pardon to sinners — not only in Ezekiel, since these words of the Psalm were said earlier, but also Leviticus 24:41: "they shall pray for their iniquities, and I will remember my covenant," and so on. Deuteronomy 30:1: "if, led by repentance of heart, you shall return to God, the Lord your God will bring you back, and will have mercy on you." And thus "may you overcome when you are judged" by men — namely their judgment that you ought not to grant me pardon. Second, these words are joined with what was said, "against you only have I sinned," that is, by comparison to you who alone are just. And this is what he says, "that you may be justified," that is, that by comparison with me and the sins of others you may appear just, Psalm 10:8: "The Lord is just, and has loved justice," and this not only in deeds, but also in words, which is the greatest thing, according to James 3:2: "if any man does not offend in word"; and "may overcome when you are judged," that is, whenever you are compared to any other whatsoever in judgment. Isaiah 5:3: "judge between me and my vineyard," and so on. Third, these words are referred to Christ, who alone is without sin, according to 1 Peter 2:22: "who did no sin, neither was guile found in his mouth," and thus he is justified in his words in comparison to all men. And "may you overcome," namely, sin, death, and the Devil. Revelation 5:5: "behold, the lion has overcome." And this while "you are judged," namely unjustly by Pilate. Job 36:17: "your cause has been judged as that of the wicked." Then, when he says "but if our injustice," he excludes a false understanding of the authority he had cited. For someone could understand the aforesaid words according to this sense, that this word "that" be taken causally and not merely consecutively. And thus it would follow that the sin of man is directly ordered to commending the justice of God. But the Apostle shows this to be false, so as to give one to understand that the word "that" is put consecutively, namely, that, David having sinned, it followed that the divine justice was made manifest; but not causally, as though the sin of man commended the justice of God. This indeed he proves by leading it to an absurdity. And this in two ways. First indeed on the part of the divine judgment, second on the part of human judgment. Concerning the first he does three things. First he sets forth the false sense; second he shows the absurdity which follows from this, at the words, "what shall we say? Is God unjust"; third he shows this to be unfitting, at the word "God forbid." It must be considered that above the Apostle had made two comparisons: one indeed of the divine truth to human falsehood, when he had said: "but God is true, and every man a liar." The other of the justice of God to human sin, according to the words of Psalm 50:6, in which he says: "against you only have I sinned, that you may be justified." And as to the first comparison, he says: if these words are to be understood as meaning that our injustice directly commends the justice of God, what shall we say? That is, we shall not be able to bear the absurdities that follow. For sin is not necessary to God for the commending of his justice. Ecclesiasticus 15:22: "he does not desire a multitude of unfaithful and unprofitable children." Now he expresses the absurdity which follows, saying: is God, who inflicts wrath, that is, vengeance for sin, unjust? For this follows from what has been said. For if sin were directly ordered to the commending of justice, it would be worthy not of punishment but of reward. And thus God, in punishing men for sin, would be unjust — against that saying of Deuteronomy 32:4: "God is faithful and without any iniquity." He then consequently excludes this absurdity, when he adds, "God forbid," namely, that God should be unjust. "I speak according to man," that is, that I have put forth these words not from my own understanding, but from the understanding of an erring man, as it is said in 1 Corinthians 3:3: "whereas there is among you envying and contention, are you not carnal?" Now he shows that this ought not to be said, adding, "otherwise," namely, if God is unjust, how will he judge this world? That is, how would it be fitting that he should be the universal and supreme judge of the world? For it is necessary that what is first and supreme in any genus be infallible: just as the first mover is immutable. Hence in Psalm 95:13 it is said: "he will judge the world in equity." And a similar argument is set forth in Job 34:12 and following, where it is said: "in very deed God will not condemn without cause, neither will the Almighty pervert judgment. Whom has he set over the earth besides himself?" etc., namely because if he himself did not judge justly, one would have to say that another was judge of the world. Then, when he says "for if the truth," he shows the same point through human judgment. And concerning this also he does three things. First he sets forth the false understanding of the aforesaid words; second he sets down the absurdity which follows, at the words "why yet"; third he shows that to be unfitting, at the words "whose damnation." Now he expresses the false sense according to that comparison which is of divine truth to human falsehood, when he says: "for if through my lie," that is, on account of my lie, "the truth of God," namely made manifest, "has abounded unto his glory," in such a way that the lie of man pertains directly to the increase of his glory — against what is said in Job 13:7: "does God need your lie?" He then subjoins consequently two absurdities which follow. Of these, one is that man ought not to be reckoned a sinner on account of a lie, since it is directly ordered to the glory of God. And this is what he says: "why yet," that is, why even now, "am I also judged," namely by men, "as a sinner," for a lie. Wisdom 17:10: "for wickedness, being fearful, has given testimony to its condemnation," since, namely, sinners are condemned by everyone's judgment. The other absurdity is that the false statement would have a place, which was imputed to the apostles. For because they preached that through the abundance of the grace of Christ the abundance of sins was dissolved, according to what is said below, 5:20: "where sin abounded, grace has abounded still more," they blasphemed the apostles, as if to say that men ought to do evil that good might come, which would follow if the lie of man directly commended the truth and grace of God. This is what he says: "let us not do evil," namely by sinning, and by teaching falsehood, "that good may come," namely that the truth and justice of God may be commended, "as we are slandered," that is, as some, by slandering, impute to us. Below, 1 Corinthians 4:5: "we are blasphemed, and we entreat"; and as some say we say, distorting our words. 2 Peter, at the end: "which the unlearned and unstable distort." But these things he excludes by adding, "whose damnation is just," that is, of those who do evil that good may come. For just as one ought not to syllogize truly from false premises, so one ought not to arrive at a good end through evil means. Jeremiah 12:1: "it is well with all that transgress, and do wickedly," which is said from the persons of the wicked. Or, "whose," namely of those who falsely impute these things to us, "damnation is just." For the perverters of sacred doctrine are justly condemned. Revelation, at the end: "if any man shall add to these, God shall add unto him the plagues written in this book."”

“After the Apostle showed the prerogative of the Jews over the Gentiles as regards the divine benefits, here he excludes their empty glorying, by which they preferred themselves to the Gentiles who had been converted to the faith. And first he sets forth what he intends; second he proves his proposition, at the words "for we have charged." He says therefore first: thus it was said, "What advantage then hath the Jew?" First indeed, because the oracles of God were entrusted to them. "What then," shall we Jews converted to the faith say? "Do we excel them," namely the Gentiles converted to the faith? Concerning which there was a dispute among them. Luke 22:24: "And there was also a strife among the disciples of Jesus, which of them should seem to be the greater." And answering, he adds, "No, not so." But this seems to be against what was said before, in which it was said, "much every way," is more to the Jew. But to this it is answered in the Gloss that that was said with regard to the being which the Jews had in the time of the law; but this the Apostle now says according to the state of grace, because, as it is said in Colossians 3:11, "in Christ there is neither Gentile nor Jew, circumcision nor uncircumcision," since these make no difference as to the state of grace. But this response does not seem to be entirely according to the intention of the Apostle, because below he will show that even while they were under the law they were subject to sins, just as the Gentiles were, or even more. Ezekiel 5:5f: "This is Jerusalem, I have set her in the midst of the nations, and the countries round about her... she hath despised my judgments, so as to be more wicked than the nations?" Thus therefore it must be said that above he showed the prerogative of the divine benefits, whence he did not say that the Jew was more excellent, but that something more had been given to the Jew; but here he excludes the excellence of persons, because those who received the divine benefits did not use them as they ought. Then, when he says "for we have charged," he shows his proposition, and first that the Jews do not exceed the Gentiles as regards the state of sin; second, that they do not exceed them as regards the state of righteousness, at the words "but now without the law." He shows the first in two ways. First indeed from what was said above; second by an authority, at the words "as it is written." He says therefore, "for we have charged," that is, by arguing with reasons we have shown, "both Jews and Greeks," that is, Gentiles, that "they are all under sin." Isaiah 1:6: "From the sole of the foot unto the top of the head, there is no soundness therein," etc. For he showed first that the Gentiles held down the known truth of God in impiety and injustice; second, that the Jews, having received the law, dishonored God through transgression of the law. Then, when he says "as it is written," he shows his proposition through the authority of the Psalmist, and first he introduces the authority, second he explains it, at the words "now we know." Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets down the sins of omission; second, the sins of commission, at the words "their throat is an open sepulchre." Now he touches on the sins of omission in two ways. First indeed by removing the principles of good works; second, by removing the good works themselves, at the words "they are all gone out of the way." Now there are three principles of good works, of which one pertains to the rectitude of the work itself, and this is justice, which he excludes saying, "as it is written," namely in Psalm 13:3, that "there is none righteous, no, not one." Micah 7:2: "The holy man is perished out of the earth, and there is none upright among men." This indeed can be understood in two ways. In one way, that it be understood: no one is righteous in himself, of himself, but of himself each one is a sinner, and has righteousness from God alone. Exodus 34:6f: "O Lord, the ruler, God, merciful and gracious, who takest away iniquity and sins, and no one is innocent before thee of himself." In another way, that no one is righteous with regard to all things, without having some sin, according to Proverbs 20:9: "Who can say: My heart is clean?" Ecclesiastes 7:21: "There is no just man on earth who does good and does not sin." Third, it can also be understood as referring to a people of evil men, among whom none is righteous. For it is the custom of Scripture sometimes to speak of the whole people by reason of the evil, sometimes by reason of the good, as is clear in Jeremiah 26:8f, where it is said that when Jeremiah had finished speaking all that the Lord had commanded him to speak to the whole people, the priests and the prophets, and all the people, seized him, saying: he shall surely die. And afterward it is added: the princes and all the people said, there is no judgment of death for this man. But the first two senses are more in accord with the intention of the Apostle. And the same must be said in what follows. Now the second principle of a good work is the discernment of reason. And this he excludes, adding: "there is none that understandeth." Psalm: "They have not known nor understood," and elsewhere: "he would not understand." The third principle is the rectitude of intention, which he excludes, adding, "there is none that seeketh God," namely by directing his intention toward him. Hosea 10:12: "It is time to seek the Lord, who, when he shall come, will teach justice." Consequently he excludes the good works themselves. And first indeed as to the offense against the divine law, when he says, "they are all gone out of the way," namely from the rule of the divine law. Isaiah 56:11: "They have all turned aside into their own way." Second, as to the showing of the end; whence he adds, "they are together become unprofitable." For we call that unprofitable, which does not pursue its own end. And therefore when men turn aside from God, for whom they were made, they are rendered unprofitable. Wisdom 4:3: "the multitude of the wicked shall not be profitable." Third, he excludes the good works themselves, when he adds, "there is none that doeth good." Jeremiah 4:22: "They are wise to do evil, but to do good they have no knowledge." But he adds, "no, not one," which can be understood in one way exclusively, as if he were saying, except for one, namely him who alone did good by redeeming the human race. Ecclesiastes 7:29: "One man among a thousand I have found, a woman I have not found." Or it can be understood inclusively, as if he says, not even one mere man does good, namely perfect good. Jeremiah 5:1: "Seek in the streets thereof, if you can find a man that executeth judgment, and seeketh faith." Then, when he says, "their throat is an open sepulchre," he sets down the sins of commission, and first the sins of the mouth; second, the sins of deed, at the words "their feet are swift." But the sins of the heart are detected from these sins. Concerning the sin of the mouth he sets down four things. First, readiness, or foulness, when he says, "their throat is an open sepulchre." For an open sepulchre has two things. It is prepared to receive a dead body, and according to this a man's throat is said to be an open sepulchre when it is ready to utter deadly things, in the manner in which it is said in Jeremiah 5:16: "their quiver is as an open sepulchre." Second, it exhales a stench. Matthew 23:27: "they are like to whited sepulchres, which outwardly appear to men beautiful, but within are full of dead men's bones, and of all filthiness." Their throat therefore is an open sepulchre, from whose mouth proceeds the stench of foul speech. Apocalypse 9:17: "and from their mouths proceeded fire and smoke and brimstone." Second, concerning the sin of the mouth, he touches on deceit, when he says, "with their tongues they have dealt deceitfully," namely by having one thing in the heart and another in the mouth. Jeremiah 9:8: "their tongue is a wounding arrow, it hath spoken deceit." Third, he sets down the harmfulness of words, when he says, "the venom of asps is under their lips," because indeed such words come about as incurably kill their neighbors, whether spiritually or bodily. Deuteronomy 32:33: "their wine is the gall of dragons, and the venom," etc. Fourth, he designates the abundance of these sins, when he says, "whose mouth is full of cursing and bitterness," because indeed in such men cursing always abounds, since they curse others by detraction, against what is said below, 12:14: "bless, and curse not." And "bitterness," inasmuch as they do not fear to say injurious words to the face of their neighbor, by which they are provoked to bitterness, against what is said in Ephesians 4:31: "let all bitterness be taken away from you." Then, when he says, "their feet are swift," he touches on the sins of deed, concerning which he touches on three things. First indeed, readiness to do evil. Whence he says, "their feet are swift," their feet are ready — that is, their affections — "to shed blood," that is, to commit whatsoever grave sins, because among the other things we commit against our neighbor, homicide is more grave. Proverbs 1:16: "their feet run to evil, and they make haste to shed blood." Second, he touches on the multitude of harms which they inflict on others, when he adds, "in their ways," that is, in their works, "is destruction," because indeed they crush others by oppressing them. Isaiah 10:7: "to crush his heart." And "unhappiness," inasmuch indeed as they deprive men of their goods, leading them into misery. Job 24:7: "they send away men naked, taking away their clothing," etc. These two, however, can be understood to be set down to designate punishment rather than fault, so that the sense would be: "in their ways is destruction and unhappiness," that is, their works, which are designated by the ways, lead them to destruction and unhappiness. So that "destruction" would refer to the oppression of punishment by which they will be punished for their sins — Isaiah 30:14: "they shall be broken to pieces, as a potter's vessel is broken" — while "unhappiness" is to be referred to the punishment of loss, since they will be deprived of eternal happiness. Wisdom 13:10: "but unhappy are they, and their hope is among the dead." Third, he shows the obstinacy of their guilt toward evil, from which indeed some are called back in two ways. In one way, by this, that they wish to have peace from men. But against this it is said, "and the way of peace they have not known," that is, they have not accepted it. Psalm 119:7: "with them that hated peace." In another way, by regard for the fear of God, but these men neither fear God nor respect man, as is said in Luke 18:7. Whence it is added, "there is no fear of God before their eyes," that is, before their consideration. Ecclesiasticus 1:27: "the fear of the Lord driveth out sin." For he who is without fear will not be able to be justified. But this can also be said specially against the Jews, who do not believe in Christ, that they did not know the way of peace, that is, Christ, of whom it is said in Ephesians 2:14: "he is our peace." Then, when he says, "now we know that whatsoever," he explains the authority he introduced in three ways. First indeed by expounding its sense; second by expounding its intention, at the words "that every mouth"; third, by assigning the reason for what is said in it, at the words "because by the works." Concerning the first, it must be considered that the Jews, against whom the Apostle was here speaking, could, for their own excuse, pervert the sense of the authority introduced, saying that the aforesaid words are to be understood of the Gentiles, not of the Jews. But the Apostle excludes this, saying, "we know that whatsoever the law saith, it speaketh to them who are in the law," that is, to those to whom the law was given, and who profess the law. Deuteronomy 33:4: "Moses commanded us a law." But the Gentiles were not under the law, and according to this the aforesaid words pertain to the Jews. But here there is a twofold objection. The first indeed, because the words introduced above are not taken from the law, but from the Psalm. But to this it must be said that sometimes the name "law" is taken for the whole Old Testament, not only for the five books of Moses, according to John 15:25: "that the word may be fulfilled which is written in their law: they hated me without cause" — which is written in the Old Testament, not in the five books of Moses, which are properly called the law. And thus also is "law" taken here. But sometimes the whole Old Testament is divided into three, namely into the law, the Psalms, and the prophets, according to the last chapter of Luke: "it is necessary that all things be fulfilled, which are written in the law of Moses, and in the Psalms, and in the prophets, concerning me." Sometimes, however, the whole Old Testament is divided into two, namely into the law and the prophets, according to Matthew 22:40: "on these two commandments dependeth the whole law and the prophets." And according to this way, the Psalter is contained under the prophets. The second objection is, that in the law, that is, in the Old Testament, many things are said pertaining to other nations, as is clear in many passages of Isaiah and Jeremiah, where many things are said against Babylon, and likewise against other nations. Therefore not whatsoever the law says, it says to and of those who are in the law. But it must be said that whatever it speaks indeterminately seems to pertain to those to whom the law was given; but when Scripture speaks of others, it designates the others by a special title, as when it is said, "the burden of Babylon," and "the burden of Tyre," etc. The things which are said against other nations in the Old Testament pertained in some way to the Jews, inasmuch as the misfortunes of those nations were foretold for their consolation or their terror, just as also a preacher ought to say those things which pertain to those to whom he preaches, and not those which pertain to others. Isaiah 58:1: "declare to my people their wicked doings," as if he were saying, not those which belong to others. Then, when he says, "that every mouth," etc., he assigns the intention of the aforesaid authority: for Sacred Scripture convicts all of injustice on account of two things. First indeed, to repress their boasting, by which they judged themselves righteous, according to Luke 18:12: "I fast twice in a week." And as to this he says, "that every mouth may be stopped," namely the mouth which presumptuously ascribed righteousness to itself. Psalm 62:12: "stopped is the mouth of them that speak unjust things." 1 Kings 2:3: "do not multiply to speak lofty things, boasting." Second, that, recognizing their own guilt, they might subject themselves to God, as a sick man to a physician. Whence he adds, "and all the world may be made subject to God," that is, not only the Gentile but also the Jew, recognizing his own guilt. Psalm 61:2: "shall not my soul be subject to God?" Then, when he says, "because by the works of the law," he assigns the reason for the aforesaid words. And first he sets down the reason; second he explains it, at the words "for by the law," etc. He says therefore first: therefore there is none righteous, because "all flesh," that is, every man, "is not justified before him," that is, according to his judgment, "by the works of the law," because, as it is said in Galatians 2:21: "if righteousness be by the law, then Christ died in vain," and in Titus 3:5: "not by the works of righteousness which we have done, but according to his mercy he saved us." Now there is a twofold work of the law. One indeed is proper to the Mosaic law, such as the observance of the ceremonial precepts; the other is a work of the law of nature, since it pertains to the natural law, such as: "thou shalt not kill," "thou shalt not steal," etc. Some therefore understand this to have been said of the first works of the law, namely that the ceremonial precepts did not confer the grace by which men are justified. However this does not seem to be the intention of the Apostle, which is clear from the fact that he immediately adds, "for by the law is the knowledge of sin." But it is manifest that sins are known through the prohibition of the moral precepts, and thus the Apostle intends that by all the works of the law, even those which are commanded by the moral precepts, man is not justified, in such a way that righteousness would be caused in him from works, because, as is said below, 11:3: "for if by grace, now it is not of works." Then, when he says, "for by the law," he proves what he had said, namely that the works of the law do not justify. For the law is given so that man may know what he ought to do, and what to avoid. Psalm 147:20: "he hath not done in like manner to every nation, and his judgments he hath not made manifest to them." Proverbs 6:23: "the commandment is a lamp, and the law a light, and the way of life." But from the fact that man knows a sin, which he ought to avoid as forbidden, it does not immediately follow that he avoids it, which pertains to the nature of righteousness, because concupiscence subverts the judgment of reason in the particular matter to be done. And therefore the law does not suffice for justifying, but another remedy is necessary, by which concupiscence may be repressed.”

“After the Apostle has shown that Jews and gentiles are equal as regards the preceding state of guilt, he here shows that they are equal as regards the subsequent state of grace. And concerning this he does three things. First he sets forth his proposal; second he shows a certain thing which he had presupposed, at the words "Is he the God of the Jews only?"; third he answers an objection, at the words "Do we then destroy the law?" Concerning the first he does three things. First he proposes what he intends; second he manifests his proposal, at the words "there is no distinction"; third he infers the intended conclusion, at the words "Where is then your boasting?" Concerning the first he does three things. First he sets forth the relation of justice to the law; second he assigns the cause of justice, at the words "but the justice of God"; third he assigns the community of this kind of justice, at the words "unto all," and so on. He sets forth, then, first, a twofold comparison or relation of justice to the law. First indeed, that it is not caused by the law. And this is what he says: it has been said that formerly, through works of the law, the justice of God could not exist — either because he himself is just, fulfilling the promises concerning the justification of men (below, chapter 15:8: "For I say that Christ was minister of the circumcision for the truth of God"); or rather the justice of God by which someone is justified by God, of which it is said below, 10:3: "not knowing the justice of God." This justice of God, I say, is now, that is, in the time of grace, made manifest — both through the teaching of Christ, and through his miracles, and also through the evidence of fact, inasmuch as it is evident that many have been divinely justified. And this without the law, namely, without the law causing justice. Galatians 5:4: "You are made void of Christ, you who are justified in the law; you are fallen from grace." Isaiah 56:1: "My salvation is near to come, and my justice to be revealed." And lest anyone believe this justice to be contrary to the law, second, he sets forth another relation of justice to the law when he says, "being witnessed by the law and the prophets." The law indeed testified to the justice of Christ by foretelling and prefiguring it: John 5:46: "If you did believe Moses, you would perhaps believe me also; for he wrote of me" — and also through its effect, because, since it could not itself justify, it bore witness that justice was to be sought elsewhere. The prophets, however, testified to it by foretelling it. Acts 10:43: "To him all the prophets give testimony." Consequently he assigns the cause of this justice, and says: "but the justice of God is by faith of Jesus Christ," that is, the faith which he himself handed down. Hebrews 12:2: "Looking on Jesus, the author of faith," and so on. Or also the faith which is held concerning him. Below, 10:9: "For if you confess with your mouth the Lord Jesus, and believe in your heart that God has raised him up from the dead, you shall be saved." Now the justice of God is said to be by faith of Jesus Christ, not as though by faith we merit to be justified, as if faith itself existed of ourselves and through it we merited the justice of God, as the Pelagians said, but because in the very justification by which we are justified by God, the first movement of the mind toward God is through faith. For "he that comes to God must believe," as is said in Hebrews 11:6. Whence faith itself is, as it were, the first part of the justice which is from God in us. Ephesians 2:8: "By grace you are saved through faith," and so on. This faith, however, from which justice comes, is not unformed faith, of which it is said, James 2:26: "Faith without works is dead," but it is faith formed by charity, of which it is said, Galatians 5:6: "For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision avails anything, nor uncircumcision, but faith that works by charity" — through which Christ dwells in us. Ephesians 3:17: "That Christ may dwell by faith in your hearts," which does not happen without charity. 1 John 4:16: "He that abides in charity, abides in God, and God in him." This is also the faith of which it is said, Acts 15:9: "purifying their hearts by faith" — which purification indeed does not happen without charity. Proverbs 10:12: "Charity covers all sins." And lest anyone say that by this faith only the Jews are justified, third, he shows the community of this justice, when he adds "unto all" — namely, this justice is in the heart, not in carnal observances, of which it is said, Hebrews 9:10, that carnal observances pertained to the justification of the flesh, until the time of correction imposed. And "upon all," because it evidently exceeds human capacity and merits. 2 Corinthians 3:5: "Not that we are sufficient to think." He adds, however, "who believe in him," which pertains to formed faith, through which man is justified, as has been said. Then, when he says "for there is no distinction," he manifests what he had said, and first as to the community of justice; second as to its cause, at the words "being justified freely"; third as to its manifestation, at the words "for the shewing." He says therefore first: it has been said, the justification of God is unto all and upon all who believe in Christ; for there is no distinction, as to this, between Jew and gentile. Colossians 3:11: "In Christ Jesus there is neither gentile nor Jew," namely, having any distinction, as if the Jew did not need to be justified by God as did the gentile. For "all have sinned," as has been shown above. Isaiah 53:6: "All we like sheep have gone astray," and through this "they need the glory of God," that is, the justification which redounds to the glory of God. Man, however, ought not to ascribe this glory to himself. Psalm 113:1: "Not to us, O Lord, not to us, but to your name give glory." Psalm 65:2: "Give glory to God." Thus, then, because all have sinned, and cannot be justified of themselves, it remains that they be justified by another cause, which he consequently shows when he adds "being justified." Here he first shows that this kind of justification is without the law, that is, that it is not from works of the law, when he says "being justified freely," that is, without merit of preceding works. Isaiah 52:3: "You were sold for nothing, and you shall be redeemed without money." And this "by his grace," namely, God's, to whom on this account glory is owed. 1 Corinthians 15:10: "By the grace of God I am what I am." Second, he shows what the cause of justification is. And first he sets forth the cause itself, when he says, "through the redemption": for as is said, John 8:34, "he who commits sin is the servant of sin" — from which servitude man is redeemed if he makes satisfaction for sin. Just as if someone, on account of a fault committed, were bound to a king to pay money, he who paid the money for him would be said to redeem him from the offense. Now this offense pertained to the whole human race, which was infected through the sin of the first parent. Whence no one else could make satisfaction for the sin of the whole human race, except Christ alone, who was immune from all sin. Whence he adds, "that is in Christ Jesus," as if to say: in another there could not be for us redemption. 1 Peter 1:18: "not with corruptible things, as gold or silver." Second, he shows whence this redemption had its efficacy, when he says, "whom God has proposed to be a propitiation." For from this Christ's satisfaction had efficacy to justify and to redeem, because God had ordained him to this according to his own purpose, which he designates when he says, "whom God has proposed to be a propitiation." Ephesians 1:11: "who works all things according to the counsel of his will." Or "proposed," that is, he set forth on behalf of all, because the human race had no means by which it could make satisfaction, unless God himself gave them a redeemer and one who could make satisfaction. Psalm 110:9: "He has sent redemption to his people." And thus, while by making satisfaction he redeems us from the offense of sin, he renders God propitious to our sins, which the Psalmist was asking for when he said, "Be propitious to our sins" — and therefore he calls him "a propitiation." 1 John 2:2: "propitiation." In figure of which, Exodus 25:17, it is commanded that a propitiatory be made, that is, that Christ be set upon the ark, that is, the Church. Third, he shows through what means the effect of the redemption reaches us, when he says, "through faith in his blood," that is, the faith which is concerning his blood shed for us. For that he might make satisfaction for us, it was fitting that he undergo for us the penalty of death, which man had incurred through sin, according to Genesis 2:17: "In what day soever," and so on. Whence it is said, 1 Peter 3:18: "Christ died once for our sins." Now this death of Christ is applied to us through faith, by which we believe that through his death he redeemed the world. Galatians 2:20: "I live in the faith of the Son of God, who loved me," and so on. For even among men the satisfaction of one for another would not avail unless he to whom it is owed holds it as valid. And thus it is clear how justice is through faith of Jesus Christ, as has been said above. But because he had also said above that the justice of God is now made manifest, he consequently deals with this manifestation, and first he touches on the manner of the manifestation, saying "for the shewing," as if to say: this, I say, has been done, that we might be justified through the redemption of Christ and through faith in his blood, "for the shewing of his justice," that is, to the end that God might show forth his justice, and this "for the remission of former sins." For in this, that God remitted former sins, which the law could not remit, nor could men by their own power guard themselves against them, he shows that justice is necessary for men, by which they may be justified by God. Now only through the blood of Christ could sins be remitted — not only present sins, but past ones — because the power of Christ's blood operates through the faith of man, which faith indeed those had who preceded the passion of Christ, just as we also have it. 2 Corinthians 4:13: "having the same spirit of faith, we believe." Whence it is also read otherwise, so that it is said "for the remission of sins," which sins are those of men who preceded the passion of Christ. Whence it is said, Micah, last chapter: "he will put away our iniquities and cast them," and so on. Second, he shows the time of its manifestation, when he adds "in the forbearance of God, for the shewing of his justice in this time." As if he were saying: the former sins were, before the passion of Christ, in the forbearance of God, as it were in a certain divine sustaining of God — because he neither condemns those who, for those sins, believe and repent, nor does he render them wholly absolved from them, so that, these not standing in the way, they may enter into glory. Or, according to another reading, it can be understood that the holy fathers themselves were in the forbearance of God, because they were detained in Limbo, not indeed suffering sensible punishment, but awaiting to enter into glory through the passion of Christ. Ecclesiasticus 2:3: "Wait on the sustainings of God." To this end, I say, the former sins, or the former fathers, were in the forbearance of God, namely for the shewing of his justice in this time, that is, that in this time of grace he might perfectly show forth his justice, granting the full remission of sins. Psalm 101:14: "The time has come," and so on. And 2 Corinthians 6:2: "Behold, now is the acceptable time," and so on. And this is what he had said above, that the justice of God is now made manifest. It was fitting, however, that the former sins, up to this time, should be in the forbearance of God, so that man might first be convinced of a defect of knowledge, because in the time of the law of nature he fell into errors and shameful sins; and also of a defect of power, because after the written law, which produced the knowledge of sin, man still sinned through weakness. Third, he shows that through the remission of sins the justice of God is shown forth, whether the justice of God be taken as that by which he himself is just, or as that by which he justifies others. Whence he adds, "that he himself may be just," that is, that through the remission of sins God may appear to be just in himself — both because he remits sins as he had promised, and because it pertains to the justice of God that he destroy sins, bringing men back to the justice of God. Psalm 10:8: "The Lord is just, and has loved justice." And also, that he may be "the justifier of him who is of the faith of Jesus Christ," that is, of him who through faith of Jesus Christ approaches God. Hebrews 11:6: "For he who comes to God must believe."”

“After the Apostle has shown that the Jews do not go before the Gentiles, neither with respect to the state of guilt nor with respect to the state of righteousness, here he draws the conclusion he intended, namely by excluding their boasting by which they preferred themselves to the Gentiles. And concerning this he does three things: first he sets forth the exclusion of this boasting; second, the cause of the exclusion, at the words "by what law"; third he shows the manner in which it is excluded, at the words "for we reckon," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he poses the question, saying: since you, O Jew, are commonly under sin just as the Gentile is, and since the Gentile is justified through faith just as you are, where is your boasting? That is, the boasting by which you glory in the law, as was said above, and by which you wish to prefer yourself to the Gentile. 1 Corinthians 5:6: "Your glorying is not good." Galatians 5:26: "Let us not become desirous of vain glory," and so on. Second, he answers this question, saying, "it is excluded," that is, it has been taken away. 1 Kings 4:21: "and the glory is departed from Israel." Hosea 4:7: "I will change their glory into shame." Or "excluded," that is, it has been expressly made manifest. For the Jews used to glory in the glory and worship of the one God, and he says that this glory of theirs has been "excluded," that is, expressed through Christ, just as craftsmen who stamp out some image in silver are called "excluders," according to Psalm 67:31: "that they may exclude those who are tried as silver." But the first sense is the more literal. But when he says "by what law," he shows the cause of this exclusion. But because the boasting of the Jews was in the law, as was said above, it therefore seemed necessary that their boasting should be excluded through something of the same kind, that is, through some law. And therefore, asking by way of inquiry, he adds "by what," namely, has their boasting been excluded? But someone might believe that the Apostle meant that their boasting was excluded through certain legal precepts, by which certain greater works were commanded. And therefore, asking, he adds "of works?" As if he were to say: is it by some law of works that I say their boasting is excluded? And he answers that it is not, but through the law of faith. And thus it is clear that the Apostle here introduces a twofold law, namely of works and of faith. And it seems obvious at first that by the law of works is understood the old law, and by the law of faith the new law, through which the Gentile is made equal to the Jew. But there is doubt about this distinction. For faith was necessary in the old law too, just as in the new. Ecclesiasticus 2:8: "You who fear the Lord, believe him," and Psalm 115:10: "I have believed, therefore have I spoken." Indeed, even in the new law certain deeds are required, both of certain sacraments, according to Luke 22:19: "Do this in memory of me"; and also of moral observances, James 1:22: "Be doers of the word, and not hearers only." It must therefore be said that he calls the law of works the law proposed and written externally, through which the external deeds of men are ordered, in that it is commanded what ought to be done, and through prohibition it is shown from what one ought to abstain. But he calls the law of faith the law written within, through which not only external deeds but also the very movements of hearts are disposed, among which the first is the movement of faith. For "with the heart we believe unto righteousness," as is said here and in chapter 5. And he speaks of this law below, at 8:2: "the law of the spirit of life which is in Christ Jesus." Then, when he says "for we reckon," he shows the manner in which the boasting of the Jews is excluded through the law of faith, saying: for we apostles, taught the truth by Christ, reckon that any man whatsoever, whether Jew or Gentile, is justified through faith. Acts 15:9: "purifying their hearts by faith." And this without the works of the law. And not only without the ceremonial works, which did not confer grace but only signified it, but also without the works of the moral precepts, according to Titus 3:5: "not by the works of righteousness which we have done," and so on. Yet in such a way that this is to be understood as without works that precede righteousness, but not without works that follow upon it, because, as is said in James 2:26: "faith without works," namely, works that follow, "is dead." And therefore it cannot justify. Then, when he says "or is he the God of the Jews," he shows something that he had presupposed, namely, that the righteousness of faith extends commonly to all. And indeed he had earlier made this manifest by an argument taken from the side of the material cause, when he had said above: "all have sinned and need the grace of God," that is, they are sinners who must be justified through the grace of faith. But a proof that rests on the material cause alone does not suffice, because matter is not moved of itself to form without an agent cause. And therefore here he adds an argument taken from the side of the agent cause, that is, of the one who justifies, who is God. Below, 7:33: "God who justifies." But it is manifest that our God, in justifying, saves those whose God he is, according to Psalm 67:21: "Our God is the God of salvation." But he is not the God of the Jews only, but also of the Gentiles; therefore he justifies both. Concerning this, then, he does three things. First he poses the question concerning the Jews, when he says, "is he the God of the Jews only?" This might seem so to someone because of what is said in Exodus 5:3: "The God of the Hebrews has called us." It must therefore be said that he was the God of the Jews only through the special worship shown to God by them, wherefore it is said in Psalm 75:2: "In Judea God is known"; yet he was the God of all through the common governance of all things, according to Psalm 46:8: "God is the king of all the earth." Second, he poses the question on the side of the Gentiles, saying: "is he not also of the Gentiles?" namely, is he God? And he answers, "yes, of the Gentiles also," whom indeed he governs and rules, according to Jeremiah 10:7: "Who shall not fear you, O king of the nations?" Third, at the words "for indeed," he manifests by a sign what he had said, as if he were to say: from this it is manifest that God is not only of the Jews but also of the Gentiles, since indeed it is one God who justifies the circumcision, that is, the Jews, by faith; for as is said in Galatians 5:6: "in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision." But as to his saying "by faith" and "through faith," according to the Gloss these are entirely the same; nevertheless some difference can be observed. For this preposition "by" [ex] sometimes designates a remote cause; this preposition "through" [per] designates a proximate cause. The Jews, then, are said to be justified "by faith," because faith was the first cause from which circumcision and the other legal sacraments proceeded; and thus faith justifies the Jews as a kind of primary cause acting through certain intermediate causes. But the Gentiles are justified immediately through faith itself. Then, when he says "do we then destroy the law," he excludes a certain objection. For someone might say that he was destroying the aforesaid law, and therefore he asks, saying, "do we then destroy the law through faith," namely from the fact that we say men are justified without the works of the law. And he answers, "God forbid," according to Matthew 5:18: "not one iota, or one tittle shall pass away," and so on. But he adds, "but we establish the law," that is, through faith we perfect and fulfill the law, according to Matthew 5:17: "I have not come to destroy the law, but to fulfill it." And this both with regard to the ceremonial precepts, which, since they were figural, are established and fulfilled by the fact that the truth signified through them is exhibited in the faith of Christ; and also with regard to the moral precepts, because the faith of Christ confers the help of grace for fulfilling the moral precepts of the law, and it also adds certain counsels by which the moral precepts are more safely and firmly kept.”

“After the Apostle excluded the glory of the Jews which they had in the law, by which they preferred themselves to the Gentiles, here he excludes their glory as regards circumcision. And concerning this he does two things. First he resumes the question which he had proposed above, saying, What is the profit of circumcision? And because Abraham was the first to receive the commandment concerning circumcision, as is said in Genesis 17:10, therefore he repeats the question in the person of Abraham himself, saying: if it is so that God justifies the uncircumcision just as He justifies circumcision, what then shall we say that Abraham our father found according to the flesh? That is, according to carnal circumcision and according to the other carnal observances? It seems to be unfitting if it should be said that he found no profit, since it is said in Isaiah 47:17: "I am the Lord teaching you profitable things." Second, where he says "For if Abraham," etc., he responds to the question proposed. And he does two things. First he shows that Abraham did not find this through circumcision and the other works of the law, namely that he should be justified by it, but rather through faith. Second he commends his faith, where he says "who against hope," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows the proposition by an argument taken from the side of the divine acceptance; second, by an argument from the divine promise, where he says "For not through the law," etc. Concerning the first he does three things. First he proposes a certain conditional; second he proves the destruction of the consequent, where he says "For what does Scripture say," etc. Third, he proves the conditional itself, where he says "as also David," etc. Concerning the first part, the Apostle intends to argue thus: if Abraham had been justified by the works of the law, he would not have glory before God; therefore he was not justified by works. He proposes therefore a conditional, saying: it was asked what Abraham found according to carnal circumcision, and it is manifest that he did not find this — that he should be justified by the works of the law — in the sense, namely, that his justice should consist in the works of the law; he has glory indeed, namely before men, who see external deeds, but not before God, who sees in secret, according to that saying in 1 Kings 16:7: "But God looks upon the heart." 1 Corinthians 3:21: "Let no one of you glory in men," etc. Whence against certain ones it is said in John 12:43: "They loved the glory of men more than the glory of God." But against this it can be objected, because from the habit of external works an interior disposition is generated, according to which even the heart of man is well disposed, so that it is prompt for acting well and delights in good works, as the Philosopher teaches in Book II of the Ethics. But it must be said that this holds in human justice, by which, namely, man is ordered to a human good. For the habit of this justice can be acquired through human works, but the justice which has glory before God is ordered to the divine good, namely of future glory, which exceeds human capacity, according to that saying in 1 Corinthians 2:9: "Into the heart of man there has not ascended what God has prepared for those who love Him." And therefore the works of man are not proportioned to causing the habit of this justice, but it is necessary that the heart of man first be justified interiorly by God, so that he may perform works proportioned to the divine glory. Then, where he says "For what," etc., he destroys the consequent which was negative, by proving the opposite affirmation, namely that Abraham had glory before God. And this he proves through the authority of Scripture, which the Apostle first sets down; second he expounds it, where he says "But to him," etc. He says therefore first: I say Abraham to be so justified that he has glory before God — for what does Scripture say? Genesis 15:6: Abraham believed God promising him the multiplication of his seed. Ecclesiasticus 2:6: "Believe God, and He will recover you." "And it was reputed to him," namely by God, "unto justice." 1 Maccabees 2:52: "Abraham was found faithful in temptation." And thus it is clear that before God, by whom it was reputed to him unto justice that he believed, he has glory. It must be considered, however, that the justice which God reputes as written, He expressed not in some external work, but in the interior faith of the heart, which God alone beholds. Now since it is said that the act of faith is threefold, namely to believe God, to believe in God, and to believe unto God, he set down this act which is to believe God, which is the proper act of faith, showing its species. For to believe in God shows the order of faith to its end, which is through charity; for to believe in God is, by believing, to go into God, which charity effects. And thus it follows upon the species of faith. But to believe God shows the matter of faith, according as it is a theological virtue, having God for its object. And therefore this act does not yet attain to the species of faith, because if someone should believe that God exists through certain human reasonings and natural signs, he is not yet said to have the faith of which we speak, but only when from this very reason he believes that it was said by God — which is designated by saying "to believe God"; and from this faith is specified, just as any cognitive habit has its species from the reason by which it assents to something. For one having the habit of science is inclined to assent by one reason, namely through demonstration, and one having the habit of opinion by another reason, namely through dialectical syllogism. Then, where he says "But to him who works," etc., he expounds the aforesaid authority as to what it says, "it was reputed to him unto justice," etc. And a twofold exposition of these words is touched upon in the Gloss. The first is according as they are referred to the final reward, concerning which it is shown first how it stands with respect to works, second how it stands with respect to faith, where he says "But to him who does not," etc. He says therefore first, that to him who works — namely, works of justice — the reward, of eternal recompense, concerning which it is said in Isaiah 40:10: "Behold, his reward is with him," is not reputed according to grace only, but according to debt, according to that saying in Matthew 20:13: "Did you not agree with me for a denarius?" But against this is what is said below in 6:23: "the grace of God is eternal life." And below in 8:18: "the sufferings of this time are not worthy to be compared to the glory to come." Thus therefore that recompense is not made according to debt, but according to grace. But it must be said that human works can be considered in two ways. In one way according to the substance of the works, and thus they have nothing condign, such that the reward of eternal glory should be rendered to them. In another way they can be considered according to their principle, namely as they are done from the impulse of God according to the purpose of God predestining; and according to this the aforesaid reward is owed to them according to debt, because, as is said below in 8:14: "those who are led by the Spirit of God, these are the sons of God; but if sons, also heirs." Then, where he says "But to him," etc., he shows how the eternal reward stands with respect to faith, saying: "But to him who does not work" — namely, external works, for instance because he does not have time to work, as is clear in one baptized who dies immediately — "but believes in Him who justifies the ungodly," namely, in God, of whom it is said below, 8:18, "his faith is reputed" — namely alone, without external works — "unto justice," that is, so that by it he may be called just, and may receive the reward of justice, just as if he had done works of justice, according to that saying below, 10:10: "with the heart one believes unto justice," and this "according to the purpose of the grace of God," that is, according as God purposes from His grace to save men. Below, 8:28: "to those who according to His purpose are called saints." Ephesians 1:11: "who works all things according to the counsel of His will." The other exposition is that this be referred to the justification of man. He says therefore "but to him who works," that is, if someone should be justified by works, justice itself would be imputed as a reward not according to grace, but according to debt. Below, 11:6: "But if by grace, now it is not of works; otherwise grace is no longer grace." "But to him who does not work" — namely, so as to be justified by his own works — "but believes in Him who justifies the ungodly" — this faith of his shall be computed unto justice according to the purpose of the grace of God — not indeed so that by faith he merits justice, but because the very act of believing is the first act of justice which God works in him. For from the fact that he believes in God justifying, he subjects himself to His justification, and thus receives its effect. And this exposition is the literal one, and according to the intention of the Apostle, who lays stress on this, that in Genesis 15:6 it is said "it was reputed to him unto justice," which is customarily said when that which is less on someone's part is reputed to him gratis, as if he had done the whole. And therefore the Apostle says that this reputation would have no place, if justice were from works, but it has place only insofar as it is from faith. Then, where he says "as also David," etc., he proves the conditional premised, from the authority of the Psalm. Of which he first sets forth the sense; second he sets down its words, where he says "Blessed are they whose"; third he excludes a false understanding, where he says "the blessedness," etc. He says therefore: as also David says, that is, asserts, the blessedness of man to be that of him, namely, to whom God brings, that is gives, justice, received — that is, freely, without preceding works. Titus 3:5: "For not by works of justice which we have done." Now the blessedness of man is from God, according to that saying in Psalm 39:5: "Blessed is the man whose hope the Lord God is." Thus therefore it is manifest that he has glory before God who is not justified from the works of the law, as has been said. Then, where he says "Blessed are they whose," etc., he sets down the words of David containing the aforesaid statement, and says that they are blessed whose sins are forgiven. And thus it is clear that they did not have prior good works from which they might obtain justice or blessedness. Now sin is threefold, namely original, actual mortal, and actual venial. First therefore, as to original sin, he says: "Blessed are they whose iniquities are forgiven." Here it must be considered that original sin is called iniquity, because it is a lack of original justice, by which, according to equity, the reason of man was subjected to God, the lower powers to reason, and the body to the soul; but through original sin this equity is taken away, because after reason ceased to be subject to God, the lower powers rebel against reason and the body is withdrawn from the obedience of the soul through corruption and death. Whence in Psalm 50:7: "Behold, for I was conceived in iniquities." In both cases, moreover, original sin is signified in the plural. Either because of the many men in whom original sin is multiplied, or rather because it virtually contains in itself, as it were, all sins. This kind of original sin, moreover, is said to be forgiven, because the guilt passes away when grace supervenes, but it remains in act, the tinder or concupiscence remaining, which is not wholly taken away in this life, but is remitted, or mitigated. Second, as to actual mortal sin, he says: "and whose sins are covered." Now sins are said to be covered from the divine sight, insofar as He does not look upon them so as to punish them. Psalm 84:3: "You have covered all their sins." Third, as to venial sin, he says: "Blessed is the man to whom the Lord has not imputed sin," so that by "sin" venial sins are understood, which, although they are light, nevertheless through many of them man is separated and removed far from God. 2 Chronicles 30:18-19: "The good Lord will be merciful to all who seek Him with their whole heart, and it shall not be imputed to them that they are less holy." These three, moreover, can also be distinguished otherwise. For in sin there are three things, of which one is the offense against God, and as to this he says: "Blessed are they whose iniquities are forgiven," according as man is said to forgive an offense done to him. Isaiah 40:2: "Her iniquity is forgiven." Another is the disordered act itself of the fault, which cannot not have been done once it has been perpetrated, but it is covered by the hand of divine mercy, so that it is held as if not done. Third, indeed, is the guilt of punishment, and as to this he says: "Blessed is the man to whom the Lord has not imputed sin," namely, unto punishment. Then, where he says "The blessedness therefore," etc., he excludes a false understanding of the aforesaid authority. For a Jew could understand it thus, that the aforesaid grace of the remission of sins would not come about except to the circumcised. To exclude this, therefore, first the Apostle raises the question, saying: "this blessedness," namely, by which God gives justice without works, "does it remain only in the circumcision," that is, does it have place only in the circumcised, "or also in the uncircumcision," that is, in the Gentiles? It is manifest that it is in both, according to that which he says below, 10:10: "the same Lord is rich unto all," etc. Second, where he says "For we say," he assumes, to show this, the authority of Scripture, as if he should say, I ask this for this reason: "for we say," etc., that "faith was reputed to Abraham unto justice," Genesis 15:6. Third, from this authority he concludes the solution of the aforesaid question, yet under a question, saying: "How then was it reputed?" Namely, the faith of Abraham unto justice, "in circumcision," that is, when he was circumcised, "or in uncircumcision," that is, when he was uncircumcised? And he answers: "not in circumcision, but in uncircumcision." And this is manifest from the sequence of the narrative of Scripture. For in Genesis 15:6 it is read that faith was reputed to Abraham unto justice, but he is read to have received circumcision in Genesis 17:23. If therefore Abraham, while still existing uncircumcised, was justified through faith, it is manifest that the justice of faith, by which sins are freely remitted, is not only in circumcision, but also in uncircumcision, that is, in gentility.”

“Having shown that the blessedness of the remission of sins is not only in circumcision but also in uncircumcision, by the example of Abraham who was justified in the time of uncircumcision, here he responds to a certain objection. For someone could say: if Abraham was justified before circumcision, then he was circumcised without cause and in vain. To exclude this objection, therefore, he first proposes that circumcision was not the cause of righteousness but a sign; second, he shows what follows from this sign, at the place that he might be the father, etc.; third, he shows the manner in which it follows, not to these only, etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he proposes that circumcision is a sign. Genesis 17:11: "you shall circumcise the flesh of your foreskin, that it may be a sign of the covenant between me and you." Second he shows of what thing it is a sign, saying that it is a seal of the righteousness of faith, that is, of that righteousness which is through faith, which faith indeed was in uncircumcision, that is, which Abraham had while still existing uncircumcised. Now a thing is called a "seal" in two ways. In one way, as an express sign having a likeness to the thing signified, according to that word of Ezekiel 28:12: "you are the seal of likeness," etc. Now circumcision has an express likeness with the faith of Abraham, first indeed as regards the thing believed. For he believed in the multiplication of his seed, and therefore fittingly he received the sign in the member of generation. Second, as regards the effect of this faith, which is the removal of guilt, which is signified through the removal of the superfluous skin. In another way a "seal" is called a sign concealing something which is to be revealed to friends, as is clear in the case of a seal-ring; and according to this it is said in Apocalypse 5:9: "worthy is the lamb who was slain to receive the book and to open its seals." Under the seal of circumcision, therefore, was enclosed the secret of the incarnation of Christ from the seed of Abraham. Next he shows what follows from what has been said. For it follows from this — that Abraham, justified in uncircumcision through faith, afterward received circumcision — that he might be the father not only of the circumcised but also of those believing in uncircumcision. And this is what he says, that he might be the father, that is, from the foregoing it follows that Abraham is the father of all who believe through uncircumcision, that is, who are in the state of uncircumcision. Or: Abraham is the father through uncircumcision, that is, through that which he had in uncircumcision, that it might be reckoned to them also unto righteousness, namely this, that they believe, just as it was reckoned to Abraham. And concerning this fatherhood it is said in Matthew 3:9: "God is able out of these stones," etc. And that he might be the father of circumcision, that is, of the circumcised, who derive their origin from him. Whence John 8:39: "Abraham is our father." Then he shows in what manner he is father even of the uncircumcised, namely through imitation. And this is what he says, that he might be, I say, the father not to those only who are of the circumcision, that is, who are circumcised, but also to those who follow the footsteps of the faith of our father Abraham, which was in uncircumcision, that is, which Abraham had while still uncircumcised. John 8:39: "if you are the children of Abraham, do his works." And because mention is made here of circumcision, three things must be considered concerning it: namely why it was instituted, what power it had, and why it was changed. Concerning the first it must be considered that circumcision, like the other ceremonies of the law, was instituted for two reasons. First indeed for divine worship, to which men were disposed by ceremonies of this kind. And according to this, circumcision has a threefold cause of its institution, of which the first is to signify the faith and obedience by which Abraham subjected himself to God, namely that those who received the circumcision handed down from Abraham should observe his faith and obedience. For it is said in Hebrews 4:11 that Abraham was circumcised by faith; and therefore circumcision was made in the member of generation to signify his faith concerning future offspring, as has been said. The second is to express in a bodily sign that which was to be done spiritually, namely that just as the superfluous skin was cut off from the member of generation, which chiefly serves concupiscence, so also every superfluous concupiscence should be taken away from the heart of man, according to that word of Jeremiah 4:4: "be circumcised to the Lord, and take away the foreskin of your hearts," etc. The third is that by this sign that people worshipping God might be distinguished from all other peoples. And hence it is that the Lord commanded the sons of Israel to be circumcised, who were about to dwell among other nations, whereas before, remaining solitary in the desert, they had not been circumcised. But another reason for circumcision and for all the ceremonial observances is taken by comparison to Christ, to whom they are compared as figure to truth and members to body, according to that word of Colossians 2:17: "which are a shadow of things to come, but the body is Christ's." Thus, therefore, through bodily circumcision is signified the spiritual circumcision to be accomplished through Christ. First indeed as regards the soul, insofar as through him the guilt of sins and concupiscence are cut off. Colossians 2:11: "in whom," that is Christ, "you were circumcised with a circumcision not made by hands, in the putting off of the body of the flesh, but in the circumcision of our Lord Jesus Christ." Second, as regards the body, namely when in the resurrection all passibility and mortality will be taken away from the bodies of the elect; and therefore circumcision was done on the eighth day, because it signifies the eighth age of those rising again — for the seventh is of those resting in Christ. Now there are six ages through which the world runs its course. Whence also circumcision is read to have been performed with stone knives, Joshua 5:2 and Exodus 4:25, to signify that the spiritual circumcision was to be accomplished through the rock, which is Christ, as is said in 1 Corinthians 10:4. Yet this was not universally observed, that circumcision had to be done with stone. Concerning the second point, however, it must be known that, as the Gloss says here — and it is Bede's — "circumcision in the law provided the same saving aid of healing against the wound of original sin which Baptism has been accustomed to accomplish in the time of revealed grace." From which it is clear that the power of circumcision extended to the deletion of original sin. Some, however, say that grace was not conferred in circumcision, for there cannot be the grace of God without righteousness. Now the Apostle argues thus in Galatians 2:21: "if righteousness is through the law, then Christ died in vain," that is, without cause. And in the same way we can argue: if from circumcision there is justifying grace, Christ died in vain; but this cannot be, for the remission of sin never occurs without grace. Titus 3:7: "being justified, therefore, by his grace," etc. And therefore others say that in circumcision grace was given as regards its privative effects, namely the removal of guilt, but not as regards its positive effects, that is, the working of righteousness. But this also does not seem fitting; for the positive effects of any form precede, in the order of nature, the privative effects. For light does not drive away darkness except through this, that it illumines. And thus grace drives away guilt through this, that it justifies. Now when the prior is removed, the posterior is removed. And therefore it is better to say that circumcision, from the work performed itself, did not have an effective power, neither as regards the removal of guilt, nor as regards the working of righteousness, but was only a sign of righteousness, as the Apostle says here; but through the faith of Christ, of which circumcision was the sign, original sin was taken away and the help of grace was conferred for acting rightly. Concerning the third point, however, it is already clear from what has been said why it was necessary for circumcision to be changed. For circumcision was a sign of the future. But the same sign does not befit the present, or the past and the future alike; and therefore Baptism is a sign of present grace, which has a more abundant and more useful effect of grace, because the closer and more present an agent is, the more efficaciously it operates. Then, when he says "for not through the law," etc., he shows the proposition, namely that circumcision, or whatever work of the law, does not justify by virtue of the divine promise. And concerning this he does two things. First he sets forth what he intends; second he proves the proposition, at the place "for if they who are of the law," etc. The Apostle therefore supposes, first, on the authority of Genesis, that the promise was made to Abraham and to his seed, that he should be the heir of the world, that is, that all the nations of the world should be blessed in him, according to that word of Genesis 12:3: "in you shall be blessed," etc. Now he says "and to his seed," because this promise, even if it was not fulfilled in him, was nevertheless to be fulfilled in his seed. For it is said in Genesis 22:18: "in your seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed." Now this seed is principally understood as Christ, according to that word of Galatians 3:16: "to Abraham were the promises made, and to his seed. He does not say, 'and to seeds,' as of many, but as of one, 'and to your seed,'" etc. Because indeed it is shown in the one in whom it is fulfilled, that he should be heir of the world, according to that word of Psalm 2:8: "ask of me, and I will give you the nations for your inheritance." Secondarily, however, it is fulfilled in those who, through the grace of Christ, are spiritually the seed of Abraham. Below, 9:8: "they who are the children of the promise are accounted for the seed." They also, through Christ, are heirs of the world, insofar as all things redound to the glory of the elect. 1 Corinthians 3:22: "all things are yours," etc. Concerning this promise he denies one thing and asserts another. He denies that a promise of this kind was made through the law. This indeed is said not on account of the promise itself, because at the time of the promise the law had not been given, but on account of the fulfillment of the promise, so that the sense is, that such a promise was made to Abraham not as to be fulfilled through the law, because, as is said in Hebrews 7:19, "the law brought nothing to perfection." But he asserts another thing, namely that a promise of this kind is to be fulfilled through the righteousness of faith, because "the saints through faith conquered kingdoms," Hebrews 11:33. Then, when he says "for if," etc., he shows the proposition. And first as regards this, that the promise is not to be fulfilled through the law; second as regards this, that it is to be fulfilled through the righteousness of faith, at the place "therefore of faith," etc. Concerning the first he sets forth this argument: if the promise made to Abraham were to be fulfilled through the law, the faith of Abraham believing the promise would be void, because the promise made to him would be annulled; but this is unfitting, therefore so is the first. Concerning this he does two things. First he proposes the conditional; second he proves it, at the place "for the law," etc. Now the destruction of the consequent is manifest. He says therefore first that the promise was not made through the law. "For if they who are of the law are heirs" — that is, if, in order for some to share in the promised inheritance, it is required that they attain this from observance of the law — "faith is made void," that is, the faith is made empty by which Abraham believed God who was promising, as is said in Genesis 15:6. And this is unfitting, according to what is said in 1 Corinthians 15:14: "if Christ has not risen, our preaching is vain," etc. And why it would be void, he shows by adding "the promise is made of no effect," that is, is annulled, because it does not attain its effect — against what is said in Hebrews 11:11: "he judged him faithful who had promised," and here below in the present chapter it is said: "whatever God has promised, he is able," etc. Then, when he says "for the law," he proves the aforesaid conditional through the effect or outcome of the law. And first he sets forth the effect or outcome of the law; second he proves it, at the place "for where there is no law," etc. Now he proves the conditional thus: if some promise is to be fulfilled through that which impedes the fulfillment of the promise, such a promise is annulled and the faith of the believer is made void; but the law impedes the attainment of the inheritance, for "the law works wrath"; therefore if the promise is to be fulfilled through the law, faith is made void, the promise is annulled. Now the law is said to work wrath, that is, vengeance, because through the law men were made worthy of the vengeance of God. 4 Kings 22:13: "great is the wrath of the Lord kindled against us, because our fathers did not hear the words of this book," namely of the law, etc. Now someone could understand that the law works wrath as regards the ceremonial observances kept in the time of grace, according to that word of Galatians 5:2: "if you be circumcised, Christ will profit you nothing." But what is said here must be understood also as regards the moral precepts — not indeed that the moral precepts of the law command something such that those who observe it are made worthy of the wrath of God, but occasionally, because it commands and does not furnish the grace to fulfill it, according to that word of 2 Corinthians 3:6: "the letter kills, but the spirit gives life," because indeed it inwardly helps our weakness, as is said below in chapter 8:26. Then, when he says "for where there is no law," etc., he shows in what way it works wrath, saying "where there is no law, neither is there transgression," because even if someone, the law not having been given, could sin against that which is naturally just by doing it, nevertheless he is not called a transgressor unless he transgresses a law. Psalm 118:158: "I saw the transgressors and pined away," etc. And yet every sinner can be called a transgressor, insofar as he transgresses the natural law. Psalm 118:119: "I have accounted all the transgressors of the earth as transgressing." It is more grave, however, to transgress at once the law of nature and the written law, than the law of nature alone. And therefore, the law having been given without the aid of grace, transgression increased, and merited a greater wrath.”

“Having shown that the promise made to Abraham and his seed was not to be fulfilled through the law, here he shows that it is to be fulfilled through faith. And concerning this he does three things. First he shows by what means this promise is to be fulfilled; second he shows in whom it is to be fulfilled, at the words "to all the seed," etc.; third, by whom it is to be fulfilled, at the words "who gives life to the dead," and so on. First, then, he concludes his proposition as it were from a division. For it seems necessary that the promise be fulfilled either through faith or through the law; but not through the law, because the promise would be made void. Hence he concludes "therefore is it of faith," namely that we obtain the promise, that we may be heirs of the world. John 5:4: "this is the victory that overcomes the world," and so on. And this he confirms by the contrary means to that which he had assumed above. For it was said that if righteousness were from the law, the promise would be made void; but if it is from faith, the promise remains firm on account of the power of divine grace justifying man through faith. And this is what he says, that the promise of God may be firm — not indeed through the operations of men, which can fail, but according to grace, which is infallible. 2 Corinthians 12:9: "My grace is sufficient for you," and so on. 2 Corinthians 1:20: "however many are the promises, in him," namely Christ, "they are," that is, they have their truth. Then, when he says "to all the seed," etc., he shows in whom the aforesaid promise is fulfilled. And first he sets forth what he intends, and says that the aforesaid promise, to be thus fulfilled through faith, is made firm through grace. "To all the seed," that is, to every man who is in any manner whatsoever the seed of Abraham. Ecclesiasticus 44:11f: "with their seed good things remain, a holy inheritance are their grandchildren." Second, at the words "not to that only," etc., he explains what he had said, "to all the seed." For there is a certain carnal seed, according to John 8:33: "we are the seed of Abraham." There is another, spiritual seed, according to Matthew 3:9: "God is able out of these stones," that is, out of the Gentiles, "to raise up children to Abraham"; but only the carnal seed of Abraham kept the law, whereas the spiritual seed also imitates his faith. And thus, if the promise were through the law alone, it would not be fulfilled in all the seed, but only in the carnal; but because it is fulfilled through faith, which is common to all, it is plain that it is fulfilled in all the seed. Third, at the words "who is the father," etc., he proves what he had supposed, namely that the seed of Abraham is not only that which is from the law but also that which is from faith, by the authority of Scripture; of which he first sets forth the sense, saying, "who," namely Abraham, "is the father of us all," that is, of all believers, whether Jews or Gentiles. Above, in the same place: "that he might be the father of all believers." Isaiah 51:2: "look unto Abraham your father." Second, he adduces the authority, saying, "as it is written," Genesis 17:4, "because I have made you the father of many nations." Another text has "I have appointed you," which does not change the sense. Ecclesiasticus 44:20: "Abraham, the great father of a multitude of nations." Third, at the words "before God," etc., he explains what he had said. For "I have made you" was said as though already fulfilled what was to be fulfilled long afterward; but things which are future in themselves are present in the providence of God, according to Ecclesiasticus 23:29: "to the Lord our God, before they were created, all things are known; so also after they are perfected he beholds all things." And therefore the Apostle says that what was said, "I have made you," must be understood "before God," that is, in his presence, "in whom you believed." For Abraham had believed God foretelling future things, as if he saw them present, because, as it is said in Hebrews 11:1: "faith is the substance of things to be hoped for, the evidence of things not appearing." Then, when he says "who gives life to the dead," etc., he shows by whom this promise is to be fulfilled, saying: "who," namely God, "gives life to the dead," that is, to the Jews, who were dead in sins, acting against the law — he gives life through faith and grace, that they may obtain the promise of Abraham. John 5:21: "as the Father raises up the dead and gives life," and so on. And "he calls the things that are not," that is, he calls the Gentiles, namely to grace, "as the things that are," that is, as the Jews. Below, chapter 9:25: "I will call that which was not my people," and so on. Now he signifies the Gentiles by "the things that are not," because they were utterly estranged from God. As it is said in 1 Corinthians 13:2: "if I have not charity, I am nothing." And thus by this calling the promise of Abraham will be fulfilled even in the Gentiles. Or what he says, "and he calls the things that are not," is not understood of temporal calling, but of the calling of eternal predestination, because even those who are not, are called and chosen as if they were. Ephesians 1:4: "he chose us in him before the foundation of the world." And of this calling it is said below, 9:12: "not from works, but from him who calls, it was said, that the elder shall serve the younger." Or, he here calls "calling" the simple knowledge or cognition of God, by which he knows future things, which are not yet in act, as though present. And in this way "calling" is taken in Psalm 147:4, where it is said: "who numbers the multitude of the stars," and so on. And according to this sense, what is said here is introduced on account of what was said above, "before God, in whom you believed." For two things seemed to stand against what was said, "I have made you the father of many nations." Of these, one was that Abraham himself was as it were dead on account of old age, as will be said below. And against this he says "who gives life to the dead." The other is that those many nations did not yet exist. And against this he adds, "and calls the things that are not as the things that are." Then, when he says "who against hope," he commends the faith of Abraham. And first he shows the greatness of his faith; second, its efficacy or fruit, at the words "therefore it was also reckoned," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows the greatness of Abraham's faith with regard to the promise of the seed to be multiplied; second, with regard to the further promise of the seed to be exalted, at the words "in the further promise," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows his faith to have been great; second he shows it to have been firm, at the words "and he was not weak in faith," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth the greatness of Abraham's faith, saying: "who," namely Abraham, "believed in this hope," that he might become the father of many nations, but against another hope. Concerning which it must be considered that hope imports a certain expectation of a future good; and this certainty is sometimes from a human or natural cause, according to 1 Corinthians 9:10: "he who plows ought to plow in hope." But sometimes the certainty of the one expecting is from a divine cause, according to Psalm 30:2: "in you, Lord, have I hoped," and so on. This good, then, that Abraham should become the father of many nations, had its certainty on the part of God who promised, but the contrary appeared from a natural or human cause. Therefore he says, "who against hope," namely of natural or human cause, "believed in hope," namely of the divine promise. This he sets forth secondly, saying, "according to what was said to him," namely Genesis 22:17: "so shall your seed be, as the stars of heaven and as the sand of the sea." Now both of these are adduced on account of the likeness of an innumerable multitude. For, as to the stars, it is said in Deuteronomy 1:10: "the Lord your God has multiplied you, and today you are as the stars of heaven." As to the sand, it is said in 3 Kings 4:20: "Judah and Israel are innumerable as the sand of the sea." Yet some difference can be observed between the two, so that the just, who were of the seed of Abraham, are compared to the stars, Daniel 12:3: "those who instruct many unto righteousness, as the stars for everlasting eternity." But sinners are compared to the sand, because they are oppressed by the waves of the world as by a kind of sea, Jeremiah 5:22: "I have set the sand as the bound of the sea." Then, when he says "and he was not weak," he shows the firmness of Abraham, which he first sets forth, saying, "and he was not weak." For just as temperance is shown not to be weak when it is not overcome by great desirable things, so faith is shown not to be weak, but strong, when it is not overcome by great difficulties. 1 Peter 5:9: "whom resist, strong in faith." Second, at the words "nor did he consider," etc., he sets forth the difficulties from which it is shown that his faith was not weak. And first indeed on the part of Abraham himself, when he says "he did not consider," namely so as to call the promise into question, "his own body now dead," namely because the generative power in him was already mortified on account of old age, whence he says "when he was now about a hundred years old." For it was to Abraham when he was a hundred years old that Isaac was born, as is found in Genesis 21:5. Now a year before, a son had been promised to him, according to Genesis 18:10: "returning I will come to you at this time, and Sarah shall have a son." But it seems that his body was not dead as regards the generative power, since even after the death of Sarah he took Keturah as wife, who bore him sons, as it is said in Genesis 25:1. Some therefore say that the generative power was dead in him as regards this, that he could generate from an old woman, but not as regards this, that he could generate a son from a young woman. For old men are wont to beget offspring from young women, but not from old women, who are less apt for conceiving. But it seems better to say that the power of generating was miraculously restored to Abraham, both with respect to Sarah and with respect to all women. Second, he sets forth the difficulty on the part of his wife, when he says "and the deadened womb of Sarah," namely he did not consider it so as to disbelieve. Now he says "deadened" with regard to the act of generating, both on account of barrenness and on account of old age. For the manner of women had already ceased to be with her, as it is said in Genesis 18:11. And therefore in Isaiah 51:2, where it is said: "look unto Abraham your father and unto Sarah who bore you," in order to show the deadness and coldness of both, he prefaced it saying: "look unto the rock from which you were hewn, and to the hole of the pit from which you were cut." Then, when he says "in the further promise also of God," etc., he commends the faith of Abraham with regard to the repeated promise concerning the exaltation of the seed. And first he sets forth the firmness of his faith; second, the cause of that firmness, at the words "giving glory to God." He says therefore first, "in the further promise also of God," that is, in his repeated promise, either concerning the multitude of the seed which he promised, first indeed in Genesis 15:5, saying: "look up to heaven and number the stars if you can," and below, in chapter 17:4: "you shall be the father of many nations," and again below, 22:17: "I will multiply your seed as the stars of heaven." Or it is to be understood "in the further promise of God," that is, in the repeated promise concerning the exaltation of his seed, because when he had said, "I will multiply your seed," he immediately adds: "your seed shall possess the gates of your enemies, and in your seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed." In this promise of God indeed he did not waver, that is, he did not doubt through distrust, namely so as to distrust the truth of the divine further-promise. James 1:6: "he who wavers is like a wave of the sea," and so on. But "he was strengthened in faith," that is, he clung to faith mightily. 1 Peter, last chapter: "whom resist, strong in faith." Accordingly, when he says "giving glory to God," he assigns the reason for the firmness of his faith, saying: he was strengthened, I say, in faith, "giving glory to God," inasmuch as he considered, namely, his omnipotence. Psalm 146:5: "great is his power," and so on. Whence here too it is added, "being most fully persuaded that whatsoever God has promised, he is able also to perform." Wisdom 12:18: "for power is present with you when you will." From this it is clear that whoever is not firm in the faith of God, derogates, as far as is in himself, from the divine glory, either as regards his truth, or as regards his power. Then, when he says "and it was reckoned to him," he commends the faith of Abraham with regard to its effect. And first he sets forth the effect which it had in him, saying: "therefore," namely because Abraham believed this very thing so perfectly, "it was reckoned to him unto righteousness." Maccabees 2:52: "and it was reckoned to him unto righteousness." Second he shows the effect which his faith has also in others. And concerning this he does three things. First he sets forth the likeness of the effect, saying: "now it is not written for him alone, that it was reckoned to him unto righteousness," as though we should reckon that faith was reckoned unto righteousness to Abraham alone, "but it was written for us also," to whom it "shall be reckoned," namely faith, "unto righteousness." Below, 15:4: "whatsoever things were written, were written for our instruction." So then it was written on his account, that it might be for us an example, and on our account, that it might be for us a hope of justification. Second, at the words "to us who believe in him," he shows the likeness of the faith. For the faith of Abraham was reckoned unto righteousness when he believed that his own dead body, and the deadened womb of Sarah, could be given life for the procreation of children. It shall be reckoned also to us, who believe in him who raised our Lord Jesus Christ from the dead: and in God the Father, to whom he himself says in Psalm 40:11: "but you, Lord, have mercy on me and raise me up." And because the power of the Father and the Son is the same, he himself also rose by his own power. Now that this faith justifies is found below, 10:9: "if you confess with your mouth the Lord Jesus, and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you shall be saved." Third, at the words "who was delivered up," etc., he assigns the cause why faith in the resurrection of Christ justifies, saying: "who," namely Christ, "was delivered up," namely unto death, by God the Father — below, 8:31: "God did not spare his own Son, but delivered him up for us all"; and by himself, Ephesians 5:25: "he delivered himself up for us"; and by Judas, John 19:11: "he who delivered me to you has the greater sin"; and by the Jews, Matthew 20:19: "they will deliver him to the Gentiles to be mocked." "And he rose again for our justification," that is, that by rising he might justify us. Below, 6:4: "as Christ rose from the dead through the glory of the Father, so we also should walk in newness of life." And that he was delivered up unto death for our offenses seems manifest from this, that by his death he merited for us the blotting out of sins, but by rising he did not merit, because in the state of the resurrection he was not a wayfarer, but a possessor. And therefore it must be said that the death of Christ was salutary for us, not only by way of merit but also by way of a certain efficient causality. For since the humanity of Christ was in a certain way the instrument of his divinity, as Damascene says, all the passions and actions of Christ's humanity were salvific for us, inasmuch as they proceeded from the power of the divinity. But because an effect bears some likeness to its cause, he says that the death of Christ, by which mortal life was extinguished in him, is the cause of the extinguishing of our sins; but his resurrection, by which he returns to a new life of glory, he says is the cause of our justification, through which we return to newness of righteousness.”

“After the Apostle has shown the necessity of the grace of Christ — because without it neither did the knowledge of truth profit the Gentiles, nor circumcision and the law profit the Jews, unto salvation — here he begins to commend the power of grace. And concerning this he does two things. First he shows what goods we obtain through grace; second, from what evils we are freed through it, at the place "therefore as through one man," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth the manner of arriving, or the way by which we come to grace; second he shows the goods which we obtain through grace, at the place "and we glory in the hope of glory," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he exhorts to the due use of grace; second he shows us the entrance to grace, at the place "through whom access," etc. He says therefore first: it has been said that faith will be reckoned unto righteousness for all who believe in the resurrection of Christ, which is the cause of our justification. Being justified therefore by faith — that is, insofar as through faith in the resurrection we participate in its effect — let us have peace with God, namely by subjecting ourselves and obeying him. Job 22:21: "Acquiesce therefore to him, and have peace." Job 9:4: "Who has resisted him, and had peace?" And this through Jesus Christ our Lord, who has led us to this peace. Ephesians 2:14: "He himself is our peace." Hence he adds: through whom, namely Christ, we have access, that is, as through a mediator. Timothy 2:5: "the mediator of God and men," etc. Ephesians 2:18: "through him we both have access in one Spirit to the Father." Access, I say, into this grace, that is, into the state of grace. John 1:17: "grace and truth were made through Jesus Christ." In which, that is, through which grace, not only have we risen from sins, but we also stand, fixed and erect in affection amid heavenly things. Psalm 120:21: "our feet were standing." And again: "we, however, have risen, and are erect." And this through faith, through which, namely, we obtain grace — not because faith precedes grace, since rather faith exists through grace. Ephesians 2:8: "by grace you are saved through faith," namely, because the first effect of grace in us is faith. Then, when he says "and we glory in the hope of glory," etc., he shows what goods have come to us through grace. First he says that through grace we have the glory of hope; second, that through grace we have the glory of God, at the place "and not only so," etc. Concerning the first he does three things. First he shows the greatness of the hope in which we glory; second, its vehemence, at the place "and not only so," etc. Third, its firmness, at the place "and hope does not confound," etc. Now the greatness of the hope is considered from the greatness of the thing hoped for, which he sets down saying, "and we glory in the hope of the glory of the sons of God," that is, from the fact that we hope that we will obtain the glory of the sons of God. For through the grace of Christ we have obtained the spirit of adoption of the sons of God, as is said below in chapter 8:15, and Wisdom 5:5: "behold how they are numbered among the sons of God." Now to sons is owed the inheritance of the father — below 8:17: "but if sons, then heirs also." But this inheritance is the glory which God has in himself. Job 40:4: "if you have an arm like God," etc. And a hope of this kind has been implanted in us through Christ. 1 Peter 1:3f.: "he has regenerated us unto a living hope, through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead, unto an incorruptible inheritance," etc. And this glory, which will be fulfilled in us in the future, is meanwhile now begun in us through hope. Below 8:24: "we are saved by hope." Psalm 5:12: "all who love your name will glory in you." Then, when he says "and not only so," etc., he shows the vehemence of this hope. For he who vehemently hopes for something willingly endures, for its sake, even difficult and bitter things — just as a sick man, if he vehemently hopes for health, willingly drinks a bitter potion that he may be healed by it. A sign, therefore, of the vehement hope which we have on account of Christ is that we glory not only from the hope of future glory, but also concerning the evils which we suffer for its sake; hence he says, and not only do we glory — namely, in the hope of glory — but we also glory in tribulations, through which we arrive at glory. Acts 14:21: "through many tribulations we must enter into the kingdom of heaven." James 1:2: "count it all joy, my brothers, when you fall into various trials." And he then shows the cause, saying "knowing," etc. Where he sets down four things in order, of which the first is tribulation, concerning which it is said that tribulation works patience — not indeed in such a way that tribulation is its efficient cause, but because tribulation is the matter and occasion for exercising the act of patience. Below 12:12: "patient in tribulation." Second, he sets down the effect of patience, when he says "patience, trial." Ecclesiasticus 2:5: "gold and silver are tried in the fire: but acceptable men in the furnace of humiliation." For it is manifest that we easily endure the loss of some thing for the sake of the thing which we love more. Hence if someone patiently endures loss in bodily and temporal things for the sake of obtaining eternal goods, it is sufficiently proved from this that such a one loves eternal goods more than temporal ones. But against what is said here stands that saying of James 1:3: "the trial of your faith works patience." It must be said, however, that "trial" can be understood in two ways. In one way, according as it is in the thing tried, and thus the trial is the very tribulation by which a man is tried; hence it is the same thing to say that tribulation works patience, and that tribulation tries patience. In another way, "trial" is taken for having been tried — and thus it is taken here that patience works trial, because from the fact that a man patiently endures tribulation, he is thereby rendered already proved. Third, he adds the third, saying "and trial, hope" — namely, works — because, namely, from the fact that someone has already been proved, hope can be had, both by himself and by others, that he will be admitted to the inheritance of God. Wisdom 3:5: "God tried them, and found them worthy of himself." Thus therefore, from the first to the last, it is clear that tribulation prepares the way to hope. Hence if someone glories vehemently in hope, it follows that he should glory also in the tribulations themselves. Then, when he says "and hope does not confound," he shows the firmness of this hope. And first he sets it down, saying: and hope — namely, this hope by which we hope for the glory of the sons of God — does not confound, that is, does not fail, unless a man fails it. For that man is said to be confounded by his hope who falls short of that which he hopes for. Psalm 30:2: "in you, Lord, have I hoped, let me never be confounded." Ecclesiastes 2:11: "no one has hoped in the Lord, and been confounded." Second, at the place "because the charity of God," etc., he sets down a twofold argument for the certainty of hope, of which the first is from the gift of the Holy Spirit, the second from the death of Christ, at the place "for why did Christ," etc. He says therefore first: from this we can know that hope does not confound, because the charity of God is poured forth in our hearts, through the Holy Spirit who has been given to us. Now the charity of God can be taken in two ways. In one way, for the charity by which God loves us — Jeremiah 31:3: "with an everlasting charity have I loved you"; in another way it can be called the charity of God by which we love God — below 8:38f.: "I am certain that neither death nor life will separate us from the charity of God." But each charity of God is poured forth in our hearts through the Holy Spirit who has been given to us. For the Holy Spirit, who is the love of the Father and the Son, to be given to us, is for us to be led to a participation in that love which is the Holy Spirit; from which participation, indeed, we are made lovers of God. And this, that we love him, is a sign that he loves us. Proverbs 8:17: "I love those who love me." Not as though we had first loved God, but because he first loved us, as is said in 1 John 4:10. Now the charity by which he loves us is said to be poured forth in our hearts, because it is openly shown in our hearts through the gift of the Holy Spirit impressed upon us. John 3:24: "in this we know that God abides in us," etc. But the charity by which we love God is said to be poured forth in our hearts, that is, because it extends itself to perfecting all the habits and acts of the soul; for, as is said in 1 Corinthians 13:4: "charity is patient, is kind," etc. But from each understanding of these words it is concluded that hope does not confound. For if the charity of God by which God loves us is taken, it is manifest that he will not deny himself to those whom he loves. Deuteronomy 33:3: "he loved the peoples, all the saints are in his hand." Likewise also, if the charity of God by which we love God is taken, it is manifest that he has prepared eternal goods for those who love him. John 14:21: "if anyone loves me, he will be loved by my Father," etc.”

“After the Apostle showed the firmness of hope through the gift of the Holy Spirit, here he shows the same thing through the death of Christ. And first he sets forth the question; second he shows the difficulty, at the place "for scarcely for a just man," etc.; third he determines the truth of the question, at the place "but God commends his charity," etc. He says therefore first: it has been said that hope does not confound, which indeed appears to one considering this: "for why did Christ, when as yet we were weak" — namely, with the weakness of sin — die? Psalm 6:3: "Have mercy on me, O Lord, for I am weak." For just as through bodily weakness the due harmony of the humors is dissolved, so too through sin the due order of the affections is excluded. When therefore we were still weak, "Christ died for the ungodly." 1 Peter 3:18: "Christ died once for our sins, the just for the unjust." And this "according to the time," that is, that at a fixed time he would remain in death, namely to rise on the third day. Matthew 12:40: "As Jonah was in the belly of the whale three days and three nights, so shall the Son of Man be in the heart of the earth." This therefore is a great thing, if we consider who died. It is great also if we consider for whom he died. But it cannot be so great a thing unless it be done for the sake of some certain fruit, according to that word of Psalm 29:10: "What profit is there in my blood, while I go down into corruption?" As if to say: none, if the salvation of the human race does not follow. Then when he says, "for scarcely for a just man," etc., he shows the difficulty of the aforesaid question on the part of those for whom Christ died, namely for the ungodly, saying, "for scarcely will anyone" — that is, someone — "die" for the sake of freeing a just man; nay rather, as it is said, Isaiah 57:1: "The just man perishes, and there is no one who considers it in his heart," etc. Therefore I say scarcely does one die, for "perhaps someone" — that is, some rare person, out of zeal for virtue — "might dare to die for a good man." For it is rare on account of this, that it is the greatest thing, as indeed it is said, John 15:13: "Greater love than this hath no man," etc. But that which Christ did — that someone should die for the ungodly and the unjust — is never found. And therefore it is rightly to be wondered at, why Christ did this. But it can also be read otherwise, so that by "just" we understand someone practiced in virtue; and by "good," an innocent man. And although according to this the just man is more excellent than the good man, nevertheless for the just man scarcely does anyone die. The reason for this is that the innocent one, who is understood by "good," seems more pitiable on account of a defect of age or something of this kind. The just man, however, because he is perfect and without defect, does not have in himself the malice of mercy. That someone, therefore, should die for an innocent man can come about from compassion of mercy; but that someone should die for a just man comes about from zeal for virtue, which is found in fewer than the passion of mercy. Then when he says, "but he commends," etc., he responds to the aforesaid question. And first he sets forth the response; second, from this he argues to his proposal, at the place "much more then," etc.; third he shows the necessity of the inference, at the place "for if, when we were enemies," etc. He says therefore first: it has been asked why Christ died for the ungodly; and to this there is a response, that by this "God commends his charity in us," that is, by this he shows himself to love us most greatly, since "if while we were still sinners, Christ died for us," and this "according to the time," as was explained above. But the very death of Christ for us shows the charity of God, because he gave his Son, that, making satisfaction for us, he might die. John 3:16: "So God loved the world, that he gave his only-begotten Son," etc. And thus, just as the charity of God the Father toward us is shown by the fact that he gave us his Spirit, as was said above, so too by the fact that he gave his Son, as is said here. But in saying "commends," he assigns a certain immensity of divine charity, which indeed is shown both from the very deed itself, namely that he gave his Son to die for us, and on the part of our condition, because he did not do this provoked by our merits, since we were still sinners. Ephesians 2:4 and following: "God, who is rich in mercy, on account of his exceeding charity with which he loved us, even when we were dead in sins, brought us to life together in Christ," etc. Consequently, when he said "much more then," etc., he concludes his proposal from the foregoing, saying: if Christ died for us while we were still sinners, much more, "now" being "brought to life" "in his blood" — as was held above at 3:25, whom God set forth as a propitiator through faith — through his blood "we shall be saved from wrath," that is, from the vengeance of eternal damnation, which men incur on account of their sins. Matthew 3:7: "Offspring of vipers, who hath shown you," etc. Then when he says, "for if, when we were enemies," etc., he shows the necessity of the aforesaid inference, which proceeds by affirming from the lesser to the greater. And there a twofold comparison of the lesser to the greater is to be observed: one indeed on our part, the other on the part of Christ. On our part indeed, he compares enemies to those reconciled. For it seems a lesser thing that someone should do good to enemies, than to those already reconciled. On the part of Christ, he compares death to life. For his life seems more powerful than his death, because, as it is said at the end of 2 Corinthians: "he died from weakness" — namely, of our flesh — "but he lives from the power of God." And therefore he says: it is concluded by reason, that much more, being brought to life, we shall be saved through him. "For if, when we were enemies, we were reconciled to God," and this through the death of his Son: "much more," now that "we" are "reconciled," "shall we be saved," and this "in his life." Now it must be considered that man is said to be an enemy of God in two ways. In one way, because he exercises enmity against God, while he resists his commands. Job 15:26: "He hath run against God with his neck erect." In another way, by this, that God holds men in hatred — not indeed according to that which he made, for as to this it is said, Wisdom 11:25: "Thou hast loved all things, and hast hated nothing of the things which thou hast made," etc.; but as to that which, in man, "an enemy man" — that is, the Devil — has done, that is, as to sin. Wisdom 14:9: "the ungodly is likewise hateful to God," etc. And Ecclesiasticus 12:7: "The Most High hateth sinners." The cause of enmity, namely sin, having been removed through Christ, reconciliation follows through him. 2 Corinthians 5:19: "God was in him, reconciling the world to himself." But our sin was taken away through the death of his Son. Concerning which it must be considered that the death of Christ can be considered in three ways. In one way, according to the very nature of death itself. And thus it is said, Wisdom 1:13: "God did not make death" in human nature, but it was brought in through sin. And therefore the death of Christ, from the common nature of death, was not so acceptable to God that reconciliation should be through it, because God "does not rejoice in the perdition of the living," as it is said, Wisdom 1:13. In another way the death of Christ can be considered according as it lies in the action of those killing him, which was most displeasing to God. Whence, against them, Peter says, Acts 3:14: "You denied the Holy One and the Just, and asked for a murderer," etc. Whence the death of Christ, considered in this way, could not be the cause of reconciliation, but rather of indignation. In a third way it can be considered according as it proceeded from the will of Christ suffering, which will indeed was formed to the enduring of death, both from obedience toward the Father, Philippians 2:8: "he became obedient to the Father even unto death," and also from charity toward men, Ephesians 5:2: "he loved us and delivered himself up for us." And from this the death of Christ was meritorious and satisfactory for our sins, and so far acceptable to God, that it suffices for the reconciliation of all men, even of those who killed Christ, some of whom were saved by his own prayer, when he said, Luke 23:34: "Forgive them, for they know not what they do." Then when he says, "and not only," etc., he shows what goods we now actually obtain through grace, saying: "and not only do we glory" — in the hope of glory which we await in the future — "but also in God," that is, in the fact that we are even now joined to God through faith and charity, 1 Corinthians 1:31, and 2 Corinthians 10:17: "He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord," etc. And this indeed "through our Lord Jesus Christ," through whom, even now in the present time, "we have received reconciliation," so that of enemies we have become friends. Colossians 1:20: "through him it pleased [God] to reconcile all things," etc. But it could also be connected with what was said: "we shall be saved" in his life from sin and from punishment, and not only shall we be saved from evils, but we also glory in God, that is, by this, that in the future we shall be one with him. John 17:22: "that they may be one in us, as we also are one."”

“After the Apostle showed what goods we have obtained through the grace of Christ, here he consequently shows from what evils we are freed through it. And concerning this he does three things. For first he shows that through the grace of Christ we are freed from the servitude of sin. Second he shows that through his grace we are freed from the servitude of the law, chapter 7, where he says, "know you not, brethren," and so on. Third he shows that through the grace of Christ we are freed from damnation, chapter 8, where he says, "there is now no condemnation," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows that through the grace of Christ we are freed from past original sin; second he shows that, kept safe by it, we are ruled against future sins, where he says, "what shall we say then," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he treats of the process of sin; second, of the process of grace destroying sin, where he says, "but not as the offense," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth the process of sin; second he makes it clear, where he says, "until the law," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth the process of sin; second he shows its universality, where he says, "and so unto all," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows the origin of sin; second, the origin of death, where he says, "and by sin death," and so on. He says therefore first that through Christ we have received reconciliation. For thus does reconciliation proceed from Christ into the world, just as through one man, namely through Adam, sin entered into this world. 1 Corinthians 15:22: "as in Adam all die, so also in Christ all shall be made alive." Now here it must be considered that the Pelagian heretics, denying that original sin exists in infants, said that these words of the Apostle must be understood of actual sin. Which, according to them, entered into this world through Adam inasmuch as all who sin imitate the sin of Adam, according to Hosea 6:7: "but they, like Adam, have transgressed the covenant," and so on. But, as Augustine says against them, if the Apostle here were speaking of the entrance of actual sin, which is by imitation, he would not say that sin entered into this world through a man, but rather through the Devil, whom sinners imitate, according to Wisdom 2:24: "by the envy of the Devil death entered into the world," and so on. It must therefore be understood that through Adam sin entered into this world, not only by imitation but also by propagation, that is, through the vitiated origin of the flesh, according to Ephesians 2:3: "we were by nature children of wrath," and in Psalm 50:7: "for behold I was conceived in iniquities," and so on. But this seems to be impossible, that through the origin of the flesh sin should be transmitted from one to another. For sin is in the rational soul, which is not transmitted through the origin of the flesh, both because the intellect is not the act of any body, and so cannot be caused by the power of the bodily seed, as the Philosopher says in the book On the Generation of Animals; and also because, since the rational soul is a certain subsisting thing — as having operation of itself, and not being corrupted when the body is corrupted — it consequently follows that it is not generated when the body is generated, as other forms are, which cannot subsist of themselves, but is rather caused by God. It seems to follow, therefore, that neither can sin, which is an accident of the soul, be transmitted through the origin of the flesh. To this, however, it is reasonably answered that although the soul is not in the seed, there is nevertheless in the seed a power disposing the body to the reception of the soul, which, when it is infused into the body, is also in its own way conformed to it, because everything received is in the recipient according to the mode of the recipient. And hence we see that children are made like their parents, not only in bodily defects — as a leper begets a leper and a man with gout begets one with gout — but also in defects of the soul, as an irascible man is born of the irascible, and the demented from the demented. For although the foot, which is the subject of gout, is not in the seed, nor the soul, which is the subject of anger or dementia, there is nevertheless in the seed a formative power of the bodily members and one disposing toward the soul. But still a doubt remains, because the defects that are drawn from a vitiated origin do not have the character of guilt. For they do not merit punishment, but rather mercy, as the Philosopher says of one who is born blind, or in whatever other way deprived. And this is because it belongs to the nature of guilt that it be voluntary and in the power of the man to whom the guilt is imputed. Thus, therefore, if some defect comes to us through the origin of our first parent, it does not seem to have in us the character of guilt, but of punishment. And therefore it must be said that just as actual sin is the sin of a person, because it is committed through the will of the person sinning, so original sin is the sin of nature, which was committed through the will of the principle of human nature. For it must be considered that just as the diverse members of the body are parts of the one person of a man, so all men are parts and, as it were, certain members of human nature. Whence Porphyry too says that by participation in the species many men are one man. Now we see that an act of sin exercised through some member — say, through the hand or the foot — does not have the character of guilt from the will of the hand or the foot, but from the will of the whole man, from which, as from a certain principle, the movement of sin is derived to the individual members. And likewise from the will of Adam, who was the principle of human nature, the whole disorder of nature has the character of guilt in all to whom it comes, insofar as they are susceptible of guilt. And just as actual sin, which is the sin of a person, is drawn to the individual members through some personal act, so original sin is drawn to individual men through an act of nature, which is generation. And thus, just as human nature is drawn along through generation, so also through generation is transmitted the defect of human nature that has followed upon the sin of the first parent. Now this defect is the lack of original justice, which had been divinely conferred upon the first man, not only as he was a certain singular person, but also as he was the principle of human nature, namely so that he might transmit it together with the nature into his posterity. And therefore in like manner he transmits to his posterity the loss of this original justice through sin, having in them the character of guilt, for the reason already stated. And therefore it is said that in the process of original sin the person infected the nature — namely Adam, sinning, vitiated human nature — but afterward, in others, the vitiated nature infects the person, namely when, upon one being begotten, the vice of nature is imputed as guilt on account of the will of the first parent, as has been said. From this, moreover, it is clear that although the first sin of the first parent is transmitted through origin to his posterity, his other sins, or even those of other men, are not transmitted to their children, because through the first sin alone was the good of nature taken away, which was to be transmitted through the origin of nature. But through the other sins the good of personal grace is withdrawn, which does not pass on to other posterity. And from this it is also the case that although the sin of Adam was blotted out through his own repentance, according to Wisdom 10:2: "she brought him out of his sin," nevertheless his repentance could not blot out the sin of his posterity, because his repentance was through a personal act, since it did not extend beyond his own person. And on account of this there is only one original sin, because only the defect following upon the first sin is originally derived to posterity. And therefore the Apostle says in the singular that "through one man sin entered into this world," and did not say in the plural "sins" — which would have had to be said if he were speaking of actual sins. Original sins, however, are sometimes spoken of in the plural, as in Psalm 50:7: "in sins did my mother conceive me," because it contains virtually many sins, inasmuch as from the corruption of the tinder of sin we are inclined to many sins. But it seems that original sin did not enter into this world through one man, namely Adam, but rather through one woman, namely Eve, who sinned first, according to Ecclesiasticus 25:33: "from the woman came the beginning of sin, and by her we all die." To this it is answered in the Gloss in two ways. In one way, because it is the custom of Scripture that genealogies be woven not through women but through men, as is clear in Matthew 1:1ff. and Luke 3:23ff. And therefore the Apostle here, wishing to show as it were a certain genealogy of sin, made no mention of the woman, but only of the man. In another way, because the woman too was taken from the man, and therefore what belongs to the woman is attributed to the man. It can also be said in another way, and better, that since original sin is transmitted together with the nature, as has been said, just as through the active power of the man — the woman supplying the matter — the nature is transmitted, so also is original sin. Whence, if Adam had not sinned, though Eve sinned, sin would not for this reason have been transmitted to posterity. For this is the reason why Christ did not draw original sin, because he received flesh from a woman alone, without male seed. Through this word of the Apostle Augustine answers Julian the heretic, asking in this manner: he who is born does not sin, he who begot does not sin, he who fashioned does not sin — through what crevices, then, amid so many safeguards of innocence, do you feign that sin has entered in? But Augustine answers: why do you seek a hidden crevice, when you have a wide-open door? For according to the Apostle, "through one man sin entered into this world." Next he touches upon the entrance of death into the world, when he says "and by sin death," namely, entered into this world, according to Wisdom 1: "injustice is the acquisition of death." But it seems that death is not from sin, but rather from nature, as arising from the necessity of matter. For the human body is composed of contraries. Whence it is naturally corruptible. It must be said, however, that human nature can be considered in two ways. In one way according to its intrinsic principles, and thus death is natural to it. Whence Seneca says in the book On Remedies for Chance Happenings that death is nature's due to man, not a punishment. In another way the nature of man can be considered according as it was provided for him, through original justice, by divine providence. Which justice indeed was a certain rectitude, such that the mind of man was subject to God, and the lower powers were subject to the mind, and the body subject to the soul, and all exterior things subject to man: in such a way, namely, that as long as the mind of man was subjected to God, the lower powers would be subjected to reason, and the body to the soul, receiving life from it without fail, and exterior things to man, so that all things would serve him, and he would suffer no harm from any of them. This, moreover, divine providence arranged on account of the dignity of the rational soul, which, since it is naturally incorruptible, an incorruptible body was owed to it. But because the body, which is composed of contraries, had to be the organ of sense, and such a body cannot by its own nature be incorruptible, the divine power supplied what was lacking to human nature, giving to the soul the power of maintaining the body incorruptibly — just as a smith, if he could, would give to the iron out of which he fashions a knife the power to contract no rust. Thus, therefore, after the mind of man was turned away from God through sin, it lost the power of holding together the lower powers, and also the body and exterior things, and thus it incurred natural death from intrinsic causes, and violent death from exterior harms. Then, when he says "and so unto all," and so on, he shows the universality of this process both as to death and as to sin, though in reverse order. For above he first treated of the entrance of sin, which is the cause of the entrance of death, but now he first treats of the universality of death, as being the more manifest thing; and this is what he says: "and so death" — namely, or the sin of the first parent — "passed unto all," namely, because through a vitiated origin men contract the necessity of dying. 2 Kings 14:14: "we all die." Psalm 88:49: "who is the man that shall live," and so on. Then he touches upon the universality of the process of sin, when he says "in whom all have sinned," which, as Augustine says in the Gloss, can be understood in two ways. In one way, "in whom," namely in the first man, or "in which," namely in sin — because, namely, when he sinned, all in a certain manner sinned, inasmuch as they were in him as in their first origin. But since Christ too drew his origin from Adam, as is clear in Luke 3:23ff., it seems that he too, when Adam sinned, would have sinned. To this Augustine answers, in the Literal Commentary on Genesis, that Christ was not in Adam in every way in which we were: for we were in him both according to bodily substance and according to seminal principle. Christ, however, was in him only according to bodily substance. Some, misunderstanding this, have thought that the whole substance of human bodies, which pertains to the truth of human nature, was actually in Adam, and that through a certain multiplication brought about by divine power — that is, that what was taken from Adam — was amplified into so great a quantity of bodies. But this is an unfitting thing, to attribute to a miracle what is a work of nature, especially since we see that the human body, however much it be of the truth of human nature, is corrupted and takes on another form. Whence, since everything generable is corruptible, and conversely, it must be said that the matter which, before the generation of a man, was under some form other than human, assumed the form of human flesh; and thus not everything that is in our bodies pertaining to the truth of nature was actually in him, but only according to origin, inasmuch as an effect is in its active principle. According to this, then, it must be understood that since in our generation there is both the bodily matter which the woman supplies, and the active power which is in the seed of the male, both are derived by origin from Adam, as from a first principle. And therefore it is said that they were in him both according to seminal principle and according to bodily substance: because, namely, both proceeded from him. But in the generation of Christ there was the bodily substance which he drew from the Virgin; in place of the seminal principle, however, there was the active power of the Holy Spirit, which is not derived from Adam, and therefore it was not in Adam according to seminal principle, but only according to bodily substance. Thus, therefore, we receive sin from Adam and draw it from him, and we receive human nature from him, as from an active principle — which is, to be in him according to seminal principle — which indeed does not apply to Christ, as has been said. It seems further that original sin does not pass into all, because the baptized are cleansed from original sin through Baptism; and thus it seems that they cannot transmit to their posterity a sin which they do not have. It must be said, however, that through Baptism a man is freed from original sin as to the mind, but the infection of sin remains as to the flesh; whence, below, chapter 7:25, the Apostle says: "I myself, with the mind, serve the law of God; but with the flesh, the law of sin." Now man does not beget carnal children with the mind, but with the flesh; and therefore he does not transmit the newness of Christ, but the oldness of Adam.”

“After the Apostle showed the origin of sin and of death, or the entrance of each into the world, here he manifests what he had said. And first he manifests the saying itself; secondly he manifests the likeness which he was hinting at when he said "therefore as," etc.; thirdly he expounds the likeness, at the words "who is a figure of him who was to come," etc. Now he had said that sin and death passed into all men, and this indeed, according to the exposition of Augustine, he intends to make manifest by the fact that even under the law sin remained, as though the law were not able to exclude it. Concerning which he does two things. First he manifests his proposition as regards sin; secondly, as regards death, at the words "but death reigned," etc. Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows that sin existed even under the law; secondly what the law does concerning sin, at the words "but sin," etc. He says therefore first: it has been said that all sinned in Adam, because not even the law took away sin. "Until the law," that is, even under the law, so that the word "until" is taken inclusively, "sin was in the world," which indeed can be understood of the law of nature and of the law of Moses; and likewise of actual sin and of original sin. For original sin was in the little child until the law of nature, that is, until the use of reason, by which man takes notice of such laws. Psalm 50:6: "in sins my mother conceived me." Nor yet does this sin cease when the law of nature comes upon a man; rather it grows greater by the addition of actual sin, because, as is said in Ecclesiastes 7:21, "there is not a just man upon earth, that doeth good," etc. But if we understand it of the law of Moses, then what is said—that sin was in the world until the law—can be understood not only of original sin but also of actual sin; because both before the law and under the law each sin remained, Proverbs 20:9: "who can say: my heart is clean?" But although the law did not take away sin, it nevertheless brought about the knowledge of sin, which before was not known. Whence he adds, "but sin was not imputed." Which indeed is plain, if it be understood of the law of nature. For although original sin is in the little child before the law of nature, and is reckoned to him by God, yet it is not imputed to him among men. But if it be understood of the law of Moses, it is plain as regards certain actual sins, that they were not imputed before the law, such as those which are specially forbidden by the law, which men did not reckon to be sins, as is said in Exodus 20:17: "thou shalt not covet," etc. Yet certain sins were imputed insofar as they were against the law of nature. Whence also in Genesis 39:11 and following, Joseph is read to have been cast into prison on account of the adultery imputed to him. Consequently he treats of death, saying: although sins before the law were not imputed, yet death—namely spiritually, that is, sin or eternal damnation, of which it is said in Psalm 33:21, "the death of the wicked is very evil"—"reigned," that is, exercised its power over men, leading them into damnation, "from Adam," through whom sin entered into the world, "unto Moses," under whom the law was given, John 1:17: "the law was given by Moses." Not only over those who sinned actually, but even over those "who have not sinned, after the similitude of the transgression of Adam," who sinned actually. Hosea 6:7: "but they, like Adam, have transgressed the covenant"—there they have dealt treacherously against me—because even children incurred damnation. It can also be understood in this sense of bodily death, through which it is manifested that sin existed even when it was not imputed, as if he were to say: "sin was not imputed," before the law, but from this it is discovered to have existed, because "death reigned," namely bodily death, first indeed by bringing on certain sufferings, for instance hunger and thirst and sickness, and at last by dissolving man wholly, even over those "who have not sinned after the similitude of the transgression of Adam," that is, over children, who did not sin actually: since these too suffer bodily death both before and afterward, according to Psalm 88:47: "what man is he," etc. Ambrose, however, expounded these words otherwise, namely of actual sin only and of the law of Moses. And according to him these words are brought in to manifest that through the first parent sin entered into this world and passed into all. For "until the law," that is, before the law of Moses, "sin was in the world," namely actual sin. For men sinned in many ways against the law of nature. Whence it is said in Genesis 13:13: "the men of Sodom were exceeding wicked." But "sin was not imputed when there was no law," which is to be understood, not that it was not imputed as something to be punished among men, since certain persons are read to have been punished by men before the law for their sins, as is plain in Genesis 39 and 40, but it was not imputed as something to be punished by God. For at that time men did not believe that God either punished or rewarded human deeds, according to Job 22:14: "he walketh about the poles of heaven, and doth not consider our things." But afterward, the law having been divinely given, it became known that sins are imputed by God unto punishment, and not only by men. And therefore, because men did not believe that they would be punished by God for their sins, they sinned freely and without restraint wherever they did not fear human judgment. And therefore he adds: "but death," that is, sin, "reigned," that is, exercised its power in every way, "from Adam unto Moses," exclusively. For through Moses the law was given, which began to diminish the reign of sin, instilling fear of the divine judgment, according to Deuteronomy 5:29: "who shall give them to have such a mind, that they should fear me, and keep all my commandments?" Sin reigned, I say, until Moses, yet not over all, but over those "who have sinned after the similitude of the transgression of Adam." For Ambrose says that in the ancient books this negation "not" is not found, whence he believes it was inserted by corruptors. For Adam indeed believed the promise of the Devil more than the divine threat, as is plain in Genesis 3, and thus in a certain manner preferred the Devil to God. So then, after the similitude of the transgression of Adam, idolaters transgress, who, having abandoned the worship of God, worship the Devil. Over such, then, death, that is, sin, reigned wholly, because it possessed them entirely. But there were, before the law of Moses, true worshippers of God, who, even if they sinned, yet sin did not reign in them, because it did not wholly separate them from God: but they sinned under God, that is, under the faith of the one God, even if they sinned mortally; or under the charity of God, when they sinned venially. From each of these two expositions a third can be compounded, which seems more to pertain to the intention of the Apostle. For he had said that "through one man sin entered into this world," and because sin is the transgression of the divine law, it might seem to someone that this was not true as regards the time before the law, especially since above, in chapter 4:15, he had said: "where there is no law, neither is there transgression." And therefore someone might believe that sin entered into the world not through one man, but rather through the law. And therefore, to exclude this, he says that "until the law," that is, the time before the law, "sin was in the world," both original and actual, yet it was not sin that was known, especially as something to be punished by God. And this is what he adds, "but sin was not imputed," namely as existing against God, "when the law," namely the law divinely given, "was not." For there were some, as the Philosopher says in Ethics V, who believed that nothing is just by nature, and consequently nothing unjust either, but only by the mere positing of human law. And according to this, no sin was imputed, as something existing against God, and especially original sin, that is, it was not known. But that this reckoning of men was false is shown by its effect, because bodily death reigned from Adam, through whom original sin entered into the world, unto Moses, under whom the law was given; and so, since death is the effect of sin, chiefly original sin, it is manifest that before the law there was original sin in the world. And lest anyone say that they died on account of actual sins, to exclude this he says that it reigned even over those who did not sin by their own act, namely children, and even over the just who did not sin mortally, who nevertheless sinned in the first man, as was said above. And therefore he adds, "after the similitude of the transgression of Adam," insofar as they drew the likeness of that sin by origin together with the likeness of nature; as if he were to say that the fact that they died without their own sin demonstrates that in them the likeness of Adam's sin was diffused through origin. And this is what the Apostle intends to manifest, namely that through Adam original sin entered into the world. Then, when he says "who is a figure of him who was to come," etc., he expounds the likeness which was implied in the adverb "as." Whence he says that "he," namely Adam, "is a form," that is, a certain figure, "of him who was to come," that is, of Christ, yet by contrariety. For as through Adam sin and death entered into the world, so through Christ justice and life entered. 1 Corinthians 15:47: "the first man was of the earth, earthly: the second man, from heaven, heavenly." There are, moreover, also other likenesses between Christ and Adam, namely that as the body of Adam was formed without coitus, so too the body of Christ was formed of a virgin. And as the woman was taken from the side of Adam while he slept, so from the side of Christ, sleeping on the cross, there flowed blood and water, as is said in John 19:34, which signify the sacraments by which the Church was formed.”

“After the Apostle set forth the entrance of sin into this world, here he treats of the advance of grace abolishing sin. And concerning this he does two things. First, he shows how through the grace of Christ the sin was removed which entered into the world through one man; second, he shows how through the grace of Christ the sin was removed which had abounded still more when the law came in, at the place "but the law entered in besides," and so on. Now he shows that through the grace of Christ the sin introduced into the world through Adam is removed, by comparing the grace of Christ to the sin of Adam, namely because the grace of Christ can do more in good than the sin of Adam in evil. And concerning this he does two things. First, he compares the causes themselves, namely the grace of Christ to the sin of Adam; second, he sets down their comparison as to their effects, at the place "and not as through one," and so on. Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth the comparison; second, he makes it clear, at the place "for if by the offense of one," and so on. He says therefore first: it has been said that Adam is the figure of him who was to come, "but not as the offense," etc., as if he were to say: it is not to be reckoned that the offense of Adam is of as great efficacy as the gift of Christ is of efficacy. The reason for this is this: because sin proceeds from the weakness of the human will, but grace proceeds from the immensity of the divine goodness, which it is manifest is to be preferred to the human will, especially a weak one. And therefore the power of grace exceeds every sin. And for this reason David said: "Have mercy on me, God, according to your great mercy." And for this reason the word of Cain is justly reproved, Genesis 4:13, saying: "My iniquity is greater than that I should deserve pardon." Then when he says "for if by the offense of one," etc., he makes clear what he had said, namely that the gift of grace exceeds the offense of Adam, saying: "for if by the offense of one," namely Adam, "many died," that is, if from the offense of Adam sin and death passed over into many others, because into all who sinned in him, "much more the grace of God, and the gift," that is, the gratuitous gift of God, so that the word "and" is to be taken as explicative. Or, the grace of God is referred to the remission of sin. Above, in the same place: "justified freely by his grace," and so on. But the gift is referred to the goods added over and above the remission of sins, as Psalm 67:19 says, according to another text, "The Lord gave gifts to men." Much more, I say, this grace and these gifts "abounded unto many," that is, unto many. For the more powerful a thing is, the more it can extend itself to many things. But the sin of Adam extends itself to many, which is proved through death. Hence he says pointedly that by the offense of one, many died. For death is a proof of original sin, as was said above. God said to Adam: "In whatever day you shall eat," and so on. The grace of God, which is stronger, extends itself much more amply to many. Hebrews 2:10: "who brought many sons into glory." Now it must be noted that he says "abounded," because the grace of God proceeded unto many not only for the blotting out of the sin introduced through Adam, but also for the blotting out of actual sins, and for the obtaining of many other goods. 2 Corinthians 9:8: "And God is able to make all grace abound in you." For as sin from one man abounded unto many from the first suggestion of the devil, so also the grace of God proceeded through one man unto many. Hence he adds pointedly "in grace," that is, through the grace of one man, Jesus Christ. For thus grace is poured out from God unto many, that they may receive it through Christ, in whom the whole fullness of graces is found, according to John 1:16: "of his fullness we have all received, grace for grace." Now the text is to be read in this way according to the exposition of Augustine, so that what is said, "many," is taken not comparatively but absolutely; and thus he means that the comparison is to be attended to in this respect, that if the offense of the one Adam proceeded unto many, much more the grace of the one Christ unto many. But according to Ambrose the word "many" is taken comparatively, so that the sense is that by the offense — that is, the actual sin — of one, namely Adam, many, not all, died, namely by the death of sin, that is, by imitating the sin of Adam himself through idolatry, as was explained above. Wisdom 13:10 says of idolaters: "But they are unhappy, and their hope is among the dead." And much more the grace of God abounded unto many, namely than in the idolaters who sinned after the likeness of Adam, because through the grace of Christ not only are their sins taken away, but also the sins of those who remained in the faith of the one God. Micah, last chapter: "He will put away our iniquities, and cast forth all our sins." Then, when he says "and not as," etc., he compares the grace of Christ to the sin of Adam as to their effect, because not only does each of them redound unto many, but also the grace of Christ has a greater effect than the sin of Adam. And concerning this he does three things. First he sets forth what he intends; second he makes clear what he has proposed, at the place "for the judgment," etc.; third he proves it, at the place "for if by the offense of one," and so on. He says therefore first: it has not only been said that the grace of Christ abounds more unto many than the sin of Adam, but also that it produces a greater effect in them. And this is what he means when he says "and not as through one sin, so also the gift," as if he were to say: not as great an effect follows through the one sin of Adam in the many, as follows in the many through the gift of the grace of Christ. For the effect of a more powerful cause is more powerful. Hence, since it has been said that grace is more powerful than the sin of Adam, it follows that it produces a greater effect. Then when he says "for the judgment," etc., he makes clear what he had said, saying: "for the judgment," that is, the divine punishment, indeed proceeds from one, namely the sin of the first parent, "unto condemnation," namely of all men, because in him sinning they sinned, according to what was said above, that death passed unto all, in whom all sinned. But the grace of God, which is given through Christ, proceeds from many offenses, that is, not only from that one original offense but also from many actual ones, "unto justification," that is, unto perfect cleansing. 1 Corinthians 6:11: "And such indeed you were once, but you are washed, but you are sanctified, but you are justified." Then, when he says "for if by the offense of one," etc., he proves what he had said, namely that the grace of Christ proceeds from many offenses unto justification. And first indeed he proves this from the posterior; second from the prior, at the place "for as," and so on. Concerning the first, it must be considered that the Apostle, in the comparison set forth, does not put down things that correspond to each other, that is, things of the same kind. For on the side of sin he puts condemnation, which pertains to punishment, but on the side of grace he puts justification, which does not pertain to reward, but rather to the state of merit. Thus therefore the Apostle intends, through his saying that sin induces condemnation, to show that grace induces justification. And he uses an argument of this kind: as the condemnation of death proceeds from the sin of the first parent, so the reign of life proceeds from the grace of Christ. For these two correspond to each other uniformly; but no one can arrive at the reign of life except through justice; therefore men are justified through the grace of Christ. First therefore he sets down the premises; second he draws the conclusion he intends, at the place "therefore as by one," and so on. Now he sets forth the first proposition, saying: "for if by the offense of one man death reigned through one man" — because, as was said above in the same place, through one man sin entered, and through sin death — "much more," men, "shall reign in life," namely eternal, "through one, Jesus Christ," who says in John 10:10: "I have come that they may have life, and have it more abundantly," namely by participating in the eternity of life, which abundance indeed is here designated through the word "reign." Hence it is said in Apocalypse 20:4, that they shall reign with Christ a thousand years, that is, for an eternal time. But he designates the minor premise by interposing "those who receive the abundance of grace" of Christ "and of the gift, and of justice," as if he were saying: men cannot arrive at the reign of life unless by receiving this. So that the grace of Christ is referred to the remission of sin, which no merits can precede, and therefore it is attributed entirely to grace; "for if by works, now it is not by grace," as is said below, chapter 11:6. But what is said, "of the gift," is to be referred to the gifts of graces, by which men are advanced in goods. Esther 2:18: "He bestowed gifts according to princely magnificence," and so on. But what is said, "of justice," is to be referred to the rectitude of works. 1 Corinthians 1:30: "who was made unto us justice by God." Then when he says "therefore as," etc., he draws the conclusion he intends, which contains the same thing as what was premised above, namely that as through the one offense of Adam the divine judgment proceeded unto all men who are born of him according to the flesh unto the condemnation of death, so also through the justice of the one, namely Christ, divine grace proceeded unto all men, unto the justification of life, that is, which leads to life. But this seems to be false. For not all men are justified through Christ, as all men die through Adam. But it must be said that it is to be understood that, as all men who are born carnally from Adam incur condemnation through his sin, so all who are reborn spiritually through Christ obtain the justification of life, because, as is said in John 3:5, "unless a man be born again of water and the Holy Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God," and so on. Although it can be said that the justification of Christ passes into the justification of all men as to sufficiency, although as to efficiency it proceeds only unto the faithful. Hence it is said in 1 Timothy 4:10: "who is the savior of all men, but especially of the faithful." Now from what is said here, we ought to gather, that as no one dies except through the sin of Adam, so no one is justified except through the justice of Christ, which indeed is through faith in him, according to what was said above, 3:22: "the justice of God through faith in Jesus Christ, unto all who believe in him." Now men believed in him, not only those who are after his incarnation, but also those who preceded his incarnation. For as we believe him to have been born and to have suffered, so they believed he was to be born and to suffer. Hence our faith and theirs is the same. 2 Corinthians 4:13: "having the same spirit of faith," and so on. Thus therefore it has been proved that the grace of Christ proceeds unto the justification of many from the posterior, namely from the reign of life. Consequently, when he says "for as," etc., he proves the same thing from the prior. For causes are similar to their effects. But the disobedience of the first parent, which has the character of injustice, constitutes sinners and unjust men. Therefore the obedience of Christ, which has the character of justice, constitutes just men. And this is what was said above, that grace proceeds unto all men unto justification. But what is said seems to be doubtful, that through the disobedience of one man many were constituted sinners, that is, all who are born from him according to the seminal principle. For his first sin seems to have been pride, rather than disobedience, according to Ecclesiasticus 10:15: "the beginning of all sin is pride." But it must be said that, as it is likewise said there, "the beginning of pride makes men fall away from God," because indeed the first part of pride consists in this, that man does not wish to be subject to the divine precepts, which pertains to disobedience. Hence the first sin of man seems to have been disobedience, not according to the exterior act, but according to the interior motion of pride, by which he willed to go against the divine precept. Hence the Lord reproves his disobedience, Genesis 3:17: "because you have heeded the voice of your wife, and have eaten of the tree of which I commanded you that you should not eat," and so on. But the obedience of Christ is here spoken of according to which, obeying the precept of the Father, he sustained death for our salvation, according to Philippians 2:8: "he became obedient unto death," and so on. Nor is it contrary to what is said elsewhere, that Christ died out of charity, as is clear from Ephesians 5:2; because this very fact that he obeyed proceeded from the love which he had for the Father and for us. And it is to be noted that through obedience and disobedience he proves that we are made sinners through one, and are justified through one: because legal justice, which is every virtue, is considered in the observance of the precepts of the law, which pertains to the character of obedience. But legal injustice, which is every wickedness, as is said in Ethics Book 5, is considered in the transgression of the commandments of the law, which pertains to the character of disobedience. Thus, therefore, it is fittingly said that through obedience men are constituted just, and through disobedience, sinners.”