Thomas Aquinas

After the Apostle rendered the faithful Romans, to whom he was writing, well disposed toward himself by showing his affection for them, here he begins to instruct them concerning those things which pertain to the evangelical teaching, unto which he had foretold that he was set apart. And first he shows the power of the grace of the gospel; second, he exhorts to the carrying out of the works of this grace, in chapter twelve, at the words "I beseech you therefore." Concerning the first he does two things: first he sets forth what he intends, second he explains what he has proposed, at the words "for it is revealed." Concerning the first he does three things: first he sets forth the power of the grace of the gospel, second he explains it at the words "for the justice," third he confirms his explanation at the words "as it is written." He says therefore first: I am not ashamed of the gospel for this reason, that although, as it is said in 1 Corinthians 1:18, the word of the cross is indeed foolishness to those who perish, yet to us it is the power of God. For it is the power of God. This can be understood in two ways: in one way, because the power of God is manifested in the gospel, according to that word of Psalm 110:6: "He has declared to his people the power of his works"; in another way, because the gospel itself in itself contains the power of God, according to that word of Psalm 68:34: "He will give to his voice the voice of power." Concerning this power three things are to be considered. First indeed, to what this power extends, and this is designated when it is added, "unto salvation." James 1:21: "With meekness receive the engrafted word, which is able to save your souls." This indeed comes about in three ways: in one way, insofar as through the word of the gospel sins are remitted; John 15:3: "Now you are clean because of the word which I have spoken to you." Second, insofar as through the gospel man attains sanctifying grace; John 17:17: "Sanctify them in truth. Your word is truth." Third, insofar as it leads to eternal life; John 6:69: "You have the words of eternal life." Second, by what manner the gospel confers salvation, namely through faith, which is designated when it says "to everyone that believeth." This happens in three ways: first through preaching; Mark, last chapter: "Preach the gospel to every creature; he who believes and is baptized shall be saved." Second through confession; below, 10:10: "with the mouth confession is made unto salvation." Third through Scripture, whence also the written words of the gospel have a saving power, just as blessed Barnabas used to cure the sick by placing the gospel upon them. Yet superstitions of characters are to be avoided, because this is superstitious. Whence, Ezekiel 9:6, those were saved on whose foreheads was written the Tau, which is the sign of the cross. Third, to whom the gospel becomes unto salvation, namely both to Jews and to Gentiles. For God is not the God of the Jews only but also of the Gentiles, below, 3:29, and therefore he adds "to the Jew first, and to the Greek." By "Greek" he means every gentile, because from the Greeks the wisdom of the gentiles arose. But since below, 10:12, it is said "there is no distinction between the Jew and the Greek," how then here "to the Jew first"? It must be said, therefore, that as regards the attaining of the end of salvation there is no distinction between them, for both obtain an equal reward, just as for labor even in the vineyard, both the first and the last received the same denarius, as is said in Matthew 20:1-16. But as regards the order of salvation the Jews are first, because to them the promises were made, as below, 3:2, and it is for their sake that the Gentiles were taken in, as if a branch of a wild olive were grafted onto a good olive tree, as below, 11:24. From them too our Savior was born. John 4:22: "Salvation is from the Jews."

He then explains next how the gospel is unto salvation when he says, "for the justice of God is revealed therein from faith to faith." This indeed can be understood in two ways. In one way, of the justice by which God is just, according to that word of Psalm 10:8 (Hebrew numbering, i.e. 11:7): "The Lord is just, and he loves justice." And according to this, the sense is that the justice of God, namely by which he is just in keeping his promises, is revealed in it, namely in the man who believes the gospel, because he believes that God has fulfilled what he promised concerning the sending of Christ; and this "from faith," namely of God who promises, Psalm 144:13: "The Lord is faithful in all his words." "Unto faith," namely of the man who believes. Or, in another way, so that it be understood of the justice of God by which God justifies men. For the justice of men is called that by which men, by their own powers, presume to justify themselves, below, 10:3: "not knowing the justice of God, and seeking to establish their own, they are not subject to the justice of God." This justice indeed is revealed in the gospel, insofar as through the faith of the gospel men are justified at whatever time; whence he adds "from faith unto faith," that is, proceeding from the faith of the Old Testament into the faith of the New Testament, because by both men are justified and saved through the faith of Christ, since by the same faith they believed he would come by which we believe he has come; and therefore it is said in 2 Corinthians 4:13: "having the same spirit of faith, we believe, and therefore we speak also." Or it can be understood as from the faith of the preachers into the faith of the hearers, below, 10:14: "how shall they believe him of whom they have not heard?" Or from the faith of one article into the faith of another, because for justification the faith of all the articles is required. Revelation 1:3: "Blessed is he who reads and hears the words of this prophecy." In another way it can be understood as from present faith into future faith, that is, into the full vision of God, which indeed is called faith by reason of certain and firm knowledge, but this latter by reason of evangelical knowledge. 1 Corinthians 13:12: "We see now through a glass in a dark manner, but then face to face." He proves this explanation, moreover, when he adds, "as it is written, but my just man liveth by faith." This indeed is taken according to the text of the Septuagint. For in our text, which follows the Hebrew truth, it is said, "the just man liveth by his faith." Now he is called "my just man," namely, one justified by me and reckoned just before me, below, 4:2: "for if Abraham was justified by the works of the law, he has glory, but not before God. For what does the Scripture say? Abraham believed God, and it was reputed to him unto justice." Whence from this it is added, "he liveth by faith," namely by the life of grace. Galatians 2:20: "but that I now live in the flesh, I live in the faith of the Son of God."

Now four things must be considered here concerning faith. First indeed, what faith is. For it implies a certain assent with certainty, to that which is not seen, arising from the will, because no one believes except willingly, as Augustine says. And according to this, the believer differs from the doubter, who assents to neither side; he also differs from the one who holds an opinion, who assents to one side, not with certainty but with fear of the other; he also differs from the one who has knowledge, who assents through certainty by the necessity of reason. And according to this, faith is a mean between knowledge and opinion. Second, it must be considered whether faith is a virtue. And it is manifest that it is not a virtue if it is taken for that which is believed, according to that saying, "the Catholic faith is this, that we worship one God in Trinity." But if it is taken for the habit by which we believe, then sometimes it is a virtue, sometimes not. For a virtue is the principle of a perfect act. Now an act which depends on two principles cannot be perfect if the perfection proper to either of the principles is lacking: just as horsemanship cannot be perfect if either the horse does not go well, or the rider does not know how to guide the horse. Now the act of faith, which is to believe, depends on the intellect and on the will moving the intellect to assent; whence the act of faith will be perfect if the will is perfected through the habit of charity and the intellect through the habit of faith, but not if the habit of charity is lacking; and therefore faith formed by charity is a virtue, but unformed faith is not. Third, it must be considered that the very same habit of faith, in number, which was unformed without charity, becomes a virtue when charity comes; because, since charity is outside the essence of faith, its substance is not changed by charity's coming and going. Fourth, it must be considered that just as the body lives by the soul with natural life, so the soul lives by God with the life of grace. Now God first dwells in the soul through faith, Ephesians 3:17: "that Christ may dwell through faith in your hearts." Yet this indwelling is not perfect unless faith is formed by charity, which unites us to God by the bond of perfection, as is said in Colossians 3:14. And therefore, what is said here, "he liveth by faith," is to be understood of faith formed by charity.

Then, when he says, "for the wrath of God is revealed," he proves what he had said, namely that the power of the grace of the gospel is unto salvation for all men. And first he shows that it is necessary unto salvation; second, that it is efficacious or sufficient, in chapter five, at the words "being justified therefore by faith." Concerning the first he does two things. First he shows that the power of the grace of the gospel is necessary unto salvation for the gentiles, because namely the wisdom in which they trusted could not save them; second he shows that it was necessary for the Jews, because namely circumcision and the law and the other things in which they trusted did not bring them salvation, chapter two, at the words "wherefore thou art inexcusable." Concerning the first he does two things. First he sets forth what he intends; second he explains what he has proposed, at the words "because that which is known of God." Now he sets forth three things. First indeed the penalty, saying: rightly do I say that in it the justice of God is revealed, for the wrath of God is revealed in it, that is, his vengeance, which is called the wrath of God by a likeness to men who are angry and who seek vengeance outside themselves. Yet God inflicts vengeance out of the tranquility of his mind. Wisdom 12:18: "But thou, our Lord, judgest with tranquility." And concerning this wrath of God it is said in John 3:36: "he who does not believe the Son shall not see life, but the wrath of God abideth on him." Now this is said because certain philosophers used to say that punishments for sins do not come from God, contrary to what is said in Psalm 93:10: "he who chastises the nations, shall he not rebuke?" Whence it is added "from heaven," because they believed that his providence was occupied with heavenly things, in such a way that it did not extend to earthly things. Job 22:14: "he walks about the poles of heaven, and does not consider our affairs." But, as it is said in Psalm 101:20 (i.e. 102:19), "the Lord hath looked down from heaven upon the earth." Or it is said "from heaven" to show their iniquity, because they ought especially from the greatness of the heavens to have understood the power of the creator. Job 20:27: "the heavens shall reveal his iniquity." Or "from heaven," of the one who is to come to judgment. Acts 1:11: "as you have seen him ascending into heaven, so shall he come." Second, he sets down the fault for which the penalty is inflicted. And first indeed the fault which is committed against God, when he adds "against all ungodliness." For just as piety is called the worship which is rendered to God as to the highest parent, so ungodliness is called the sin which is against divine worship. Ezekiel 18:28 (Vulgate numbering): "the wickedness of the wicked shall be upon him." Second, he sets down the fault which is committed toward man, when he says "and injustice." For justice is that by which men come together and share with one another by reason. Job 35:8: "thy justice shall help the son of man." Third, he sets down the knowledge which they had of him, when he adds, "of those men who detain the truth of God," that is, the true knowledge of God, "in injustice," as if held captive. For the true knowledge of God, as far as it is in itself, leads men to good, but it is bound, as if detained in captivity, by the affection of injustice, through which, as Psalm 11:1 (i.e. 12:1) says, "truths are diminished from the sons of men."

Then, when he says "because that which is known," he explains what he has proposed, though in reverse order. For first he grants that the wise among the gentiles knew the truth about God; second, he shows that ungodliness and injustice were in them, at the words "so that they are inexcusable"; third, that they incurred the wrath of God, at the words "who, when they knew the justice of God." Concerning the first he does three things. First, what they knew about God; second, he shows from whom they received this kind of knowledge, at the words "for God hath manifested it to them"; third, he shows by what manner, at the words "for the invisible things." He says therefore first: rightly do I say that they detained the truth of God, for there was in them, as regards a certain measure, a true knowledge of God, because "that which is known of God," that is, what is knowable about God by man through reason, "is manifest in them," that is, it is manifest to them from that which is in them, that is, from an intrinsic light. It must be known, therefore, that something concerning God is altogether unknown to man in this life, namely what God is. Whence Paul also found at Athens an altar inscribed: "To the unknown God." And this is so because man's knowledge begins from those things which are connatural to him, namely sensible creatures, which are not proportioned to represent the divine essence. Nevertheless man can, from creatures of this kind, know God in three ways, as Dionysius says in the book On the Divine Names. In one way indeed through causality. For since creatures of this kind are defectible and mutable, they must necessarily be traced back to some immovable and perfect principle. And according to this it is known concerning God that he is. Second, by way of excellence. For not all things are traced back to the first principle as to a proper and univocal cause, as when a man begets a man, but as to a common and surpassing cause. And from this it is known that he is above all things. Third, by way of negation. For if he is a surpassing cause, none of the things which are in creatures can belong properly to him, just as neither is a celestial body properly said to be heavy or light or hot or cold. And according to this we say that God is immovable and infinite and whatever else is said of this kind. Now they had this kind of knowledge through the light of reason implanted in them. Psalm 4:6: "Many say, who showeth us good things? The light of thy countenance, O Lord, is signed upon us." Then, when he says "God hath manifested it to them," he shows by what author this kind of knowledge was manifested to them, and he says that "God hath manifested it to them," according to that saying of Job 35:11: "he teacheth us more than the beasts of the earth." Here it must be considered that one man manifests something to another by unfolding his own conception through certain external signs, for instance through speech or writing, but God manifests something to man in two ways. In one way, by pouring in an interior light, through which man knows, Psalm 42:3: "send forth thy light and thy truth." In another way, by setting forth the exterior signs of his own wisdom, namely sensible creatures. Ecclesiasticus 1:10: "he poured her out," namely wisdom, "upon all his works." Thus, therefore, God manifested it to them, either by pouring in light interiorly, or by setting forth visible creatures exteriorly, in which, as in a certain book, the knowledge of God might be read. Then, when he says "for the invisible things of him, from the creation of the world," etc., he shows by what manner they received this kind of knowledge. Here, first it must be considered what these things are, which they knew about God. And he sets down three. First indeed "the invisible things of him," by which is understood the essence of God, which, as has been said, cannot be seen by us. John 1:18: "no man hath seen God at any time," namely through essence, while living this mortal life. 1 Timothy 1:17: "to the king of ages, immortal, invisible." Now he says "invisible things" in the plural because the essence of God is not known to us according to what it is, namely as it is one in itself. Thus it will be known to us in our homeland, and then "the Lord shall be one, and his name one," as is said in Zechariah, last chapter. But it is manifest to us through certain likenesses found in creatures, which participate in a manifold way in that which is one in God, and according to this our intellect considers the unity of the divine essence under the aspect of goodness, wisdom, power, and the like, which in God are one. He called these therefore "the invisible things of God," because that one thing which corresponds in God to these names, or aspects, is not seen by us. Hebrews 11:3: "that from things invisible, invisible things might be made." Another thing, moreover, which is known about God is "his power," according to which things proceed from him as from a principle; Psalm 146:5 (i.e. 147:5): "great is the Lord, and great is his power." Now the philosophers knew that this power was everlasting, whence it is said "his eternal power also." The third thing known is what he calls "and divinity," to which pertains the fact that they knew God as the ultimate end, toward which all things tend. For the divine good is called the common good which is participated in by all; for this reason he said rather "divinity," which signifies participation, than "deity," which signifies the essence of God. Colossians 2:9: "and in him dwelleth all the fullness of the divinity." Now these three are referred to the three aforesaid ways of knowing. For the invisible things of God are known by way of negation; the eternal power, by way of causality; the divinity, by way of excellence. Second, it must be considered by what medium they knew those things, which is designated when he says "by the things that are made." For just as art is manifested through the works of the artisan, so also the wisdom of God is manifested through creatures. Wisdom 13:5: "for by the greatness of the beauty and of the creature, the creator of them may be known so as to be seen." Third, he shows how through these things God is known, when he says "being understood, are clearly seen." For God can be known by the intellect, not by sense or imagination, which do not transcend bodily things; but "God is a spirit," as is said in John 4:24; Isaiah 52:13: "behold, my servant shall understand." Fourth, it can be designated from what, in this manner, God is known, when he says "from the creation of the world." By this, in one way, "creature" can be understood as man, Mark, last chapter: "preach the gospel to every creature," either because of the excellence of man, who in the order of nature is less than the angels but excels among the lower creatures, according to that saying of Psalm 8:6: "thou hast made him a little lower than the angels, thou hast subjected all things under his feet, sheep and oxen," etc.; or because he communicates with every creature: for he has being in common with stones, life in common with trees, sensation in common with animals, understanding in common with the angels, as Gregory says. In another way it can be understood of universal creation. For no creature, by its own natural powers, can see the essence of God in itself. Whence also of the Seraphim it is said in Isaiah 6:2 that "with two wings they covered their face." But, just as man understands God through visible creatures, so the angel does so through the fact that he understands his own essence. Now "from the creature of the world" can be understood in another way, not as the created thing itself but as the creation of things, as if it were said: from the creation of the world. And then it can be arranged in two ways. In one way, that it be understood that the invisible things of God are understood through the things that are made from the creation of the world, not only through the things that are made in the time of grace. In another way, that it be understood that from the creation of the world men began to know God through the things that are made. Job 36:25: "all men see him." Now the Gloss says that by "the invisible things of God" is understood the person of the Father. 1 Timothy, last chapter: "whom no man among men hath seen," etc. By "the eternal power," the person of the Son, according to that saying of 1 Corinthians 1:24: "Christ, the power of God." By "the divinity," the person of the Holy Spirit, to whom goodness is appropriated. Not that the philosophers, by the guidance of reason, were able to arrive, through the things that are made, at knowledge of the persons as to their proper characteristics, which do not signify a relation of a cause to creatures, but according to what is appropriated. Yet they are said to have fallen short in the third sign, that is, in the Holy Spirit, because they did not posit anything to correspond to the Holy Spirit, just as they posited something to correspond to the Father, namely the first principle itself, and something to correspond to the Son, namely the first created mind, which they called the paternal intellect, as Macrobius says in his book on the Dream of Scipio.