“"And when the Lamb had opened one of the seven seals, I saw, and heard one of the four living creatures saying, Come and see. And, lo, a white horse, and He who sate upon him had a bow." The first seal being opened, he says that he saw a white horse, and a crowned horseman having a bow. For this was at first done by Himself. For after the Lord ascended into heaven and opened all things, He sent the Holy Spirit, whose words the preachers sent forth as arrows reaching to the human heart, that they might overcome unbelief. And the crown on the head is promised to the preachers by the Holy Spirit. The other three horses very plainly signify the wars, famines, and pestilences announced by our Lord in the Gospel. And thus he says that one of the four living creatures said (because all four are one), "Come and see." "Come" is said to him that is invited to faith; "see" is said to him who saw not. Therefore the white horse is the word of preaching with the Holy Spirit sent into the world. For the Lord says, "This Gospel shall be preached throughout the whole world for a testimony to all nations, and then shall come the end."”

“He said, "I heard one of the four animals say, 'Come and see.' " This one animal is the whole church preaching with a great voice and inviting the church to greater faith, "Come and see!" "If anyone thirsts, let him come and drink." "Approach him and you will be illuminated." "Arise, you who sleep, arise from the dead, and Christ will illuminate you."”

“Indeed, here is indicated the good order of those in heaven, which descends from the first ranks to the second. And therefore from one figure of the four-formed living creatures, namely, from the lion, he heard the first voice that gave the command, "Come!" to the angel who mystically symbolizes the vision. The first living creature, the lion, seems to me to signify the royal intention of the apostles against the demons. Concerning them it is said, "Behold, the kings of the earth have gathered together." And again: "You will establish them as rulers over all the earth."”

“And I saw when the Lamb had opened one of the seals. Since the signs are first loosened and then the book is opened, He wisely reversed the usual order. For the Lord, by suffering and rising again, taught that He is the end of the law. And ascending into heaven, sending the Holy Spirit, He strengthened the Church with the gift of a more secret mystery. Therefore, He opened the book then, and now He loosens its seals. In the first seal, the glory of the primitive Church; in the following three, the threefold war against her; in the fifth, the glory of those who triumphed in this war; in the sixth, those things that will come in the time of the Antichrist, with a brief recapitulation of the previous ones; in the seventh, he sees the beginning of eternal rest.”

“And when the Lamb had opened one of the seven seals, I heard one of the four living creatures, as it were the voice of a great thunder, saying: Come, and see. The opening of a seal is the revelation of a mystery. Now since there is not one, but many mysteries, and it would be long to speak about every one of them individually, all of them can be encompassed in three kinds, namely one kind pertaining to speech, one pertaining to cognition, and one pertaining to action. Speech includes in itself all commandments. Cognition, when applied according to the rules, teaches us the forms of understanding. As for action, it is in harmony with both. After one of the seven seals has been opened, one of the four living creatures invites John, in the manner of a great thunder, to come and see, because, after the truth has been manifested, the Church that precedes, consisting of the apostles, calls to faith the one that follows.”

“If any one, again, will look into Jacob's actions, he shall find them not destitute of meaning, but full of import with regard to the dispensations. Thus, in the first place, at his birth, since he laid hold on his brother's heel, he was called Jacob, that is, the supplanter-one who holds, but is not held; binding the feet, but not being bound; striving and conquering; grasping in his hand his adversary's heel, that is, victory. For to this end was the Lord born, the type of whose birth he set forth beforehand, of whom also John says in the Apocalypse: "He went forth conquering, that He should conquer."”

“Be you, too, faithful unto death, and fight you, too, the good fight, whose crown the apostle feels so justly confident has been laid up for him. The angel also, as he goes forth on a white horse, conquering and to conquer, receives a crown of victory; and another is adorned with an encircling rainbow (as it were in its fair colours)-a celestial meadow.”

“The white horse is the church, and its rider is Christ. This horse of the Lord with the bow made ready for war was promised beforehand by Zechariah. "The Lord God will visit his flock, the house of Israel, and he will arrange him as a formidable horse in war, and from him he looked, and from him he arranged [the battle order], and from him came the bow in anger, and from him will come out every oppressor." And so we interpret the white horse to be the prophets and the apostles. In the rider who is crowned and has a bow we recognize not only Christ but also the Holy Spirit. For after Christ ascended into heaven, he opened all mysteries and sent the Holy Spirit. Through preachers the word of the Spirit, as though they were arrows, went out to the hearts of people and conquered their unbelief. The crown upon the head are the promises made through the Holy Spirit.”

“This white horse can be understood as the church of truth, represented in the persons of the apostles and preachers, which was made whiter than snow by grace. The rider upon the horse is Christ. Therefore, it was said to him through the prophet, "For you mounted your horses and your army is salvation." For the same reason he is said to hold an arrow. An arrow is aptly compared with the preaching of the Word of God, for when the hearts of people are pierced, they are able to bear the fruit of faith. And so we read, "Your sharp arrows are very powerful; people fall before you." The crown indicates the reward rightly given to preachers.”

“And behold a white horse, and he that sat on him had a bow. By the white horse is represented Christ's humanity, free of all dark stain of sin, which the Father's Word wanted to govern alone; or it is all the elect. By the bow are represented the Old and the New Testament, from which come as many darts as there are words in the Testaments. It is said about this bow to the same rider, stretching and extending thy bow over the sceptres. [Variant of Hab. 3:9, close to the LXX version.] As for what follows, and there was a crown given him, it does not only refer to the Head, but also to the body. And he went forth conquering that he might conquer. Where did he come forth from but from the open seal? For from the revealed mystery of the Scriptures, the very truth of the mystery appeared manifestly. The Head came forth conquering first, so that he might afterwards conquer daily through the body the temptations of the Devil and the persecutions of evil people.”

“"And when He had opened the second seal, I heard the second living creature saying, Come and see. And there went out another horse that was red, and to him that sate upon him was given a great sword." The red horse, and he that sate upon him, having a sword, signify the coming wars, as we read in the Gospel: "For nation shall rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom; and there shall be great earthquakes in divers places." This is the ruddy horse.”

“But secondly, there is the blessing of Christ to us, who opened the second seal of the little scroll, and added to us the release of our shame, restoring to us the divine vision; He was tempted as the Lord and overcame the tempter so that He might show not only victory but also that the adversary was defeated. The adversary did not bite the heel of the rider nor trip up our steps (Ps. 140:4) according to God's commandments, but rather, falling backward and being sent away in servitude, and hearing from the Man whom he wrestled with long ago, even though God was in Him, He said, "Depart, Satan," (Matt. 4:10) and Satan went away in shame. And now, for the first time, the adversary knowing his own weakness, he who boasts of sitting above the clouds on his throne, will be made like the Most High, imagining himself according to what was described by Isaiah. (Isa. 14:13-14) When it happened, a fiery red horse came out, led by one of the holy creatures; and to the one sitting on the horse it was given the power to take peace from the earth so that people would kill one another, and a great sword was given to him. The fiery red horse is a riddle [αἴνιγμα] of blood; therefore, a sword is given to the one seated upon it, by which to destroy and divide the unity of those on earth toward evil. They were united in their idolatry and so that they might kill one another; that is, to destroy each other through hostile contracts. For the Lord "did not come to bring peace upon the earth, but a sword; and to set a son against his father, and a daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law," (Matt. 10:34-35) the new and godly against the ancient and condemned.”

“For, in coming to the High Priest of the Father-Christ-all impediments must first be taken away, in the space of a week, that the house which remains, the flesh and the soul, may be clean; and when the Word of God has entered it, and has found "stains of red and green," forthwith must the deadly and sanguinary passions "be extracted" and "cast away" out of doors-for the Apocalypse withal has set "death" upon a "green horse," but a "warrior" upon a "red" -and in their stead must be under-strewn stones polished and apt for conjunction, and firm,-such as are made (by God) into (sons) of Abraham, -that thus the man may be fit for God.”

“The red horse comes out against the victorious and conquering church. That is, there comes an evil and wicked people, made bloody from its rider, the devil. This is just as we read in Zechariah concerning the red horse of the Lord, except that there it is red from his own blood, while here it is red from the blood of others. "And to him a great sword was given, to take peace from the earth." This refers to the peace of the earth, for the church possesses an eternal peace that Christ left behind for himself. As we noted above, the white horse is the church and its rider is Christ or the Holy Spirit in whose hand is a bow that sends forth his commandments, as though they were powerful, sharp arrows, throughout the whole world both to kill sins and to enliven the hearts of the faithful. The crown upon his head is the promise of eternal life. Here, … the red horse is an evil people whose rider is the devil. It is said to be red because it has been made red with the blood of multitudes. And a sharp sword was given to it to take peace from the earth. This means that with the devil's connivance and influence evil people join together and do not cease to incite among themselves strife and dissension, even unto death.”

“We suggest that this second seal is to be interpreted as the succession of the apostles that is fulfilled through martyrs and teachers. During this succession, as the proclamation is extended abroad, the peace of the world is taken away, creation being divided against itself, as was spoken by the Lord: "I have not come to bring peace on earth, but a sword." And by this [sword] the sacrifices of the martyrs are offered on the heavenly altar. The "red horse" is symbolic either of the shedding of blood or of the red-hot disposition of those who suffer for Christ. The words "it was permitted to its rider to take peace" show the all-wise permission of God that tests his faithful servants through temptations.”

“And there went out another horse that was red: and to him that sat thereon, it was given that he should take peace from the earth. The red horse is the body of the old enemy, that is all the reprobates, blood-red due to their killing of souls. While the rider of the elect says, My peace I give unto you, [John 14:27] the rider of the reprobates takes peace from the earth, because the former is the author of concord, while the latter is the author of discord. Note also that he takes peace not from heaven, but from the earth, that is from those who seek earthly things. And that they should kill one another. It is not a fleshly but a spiritual killing that should be understood in this sentence. As for how the reprobates are to kill one another, it is disclosed when it is said after that about the prince of the Jews, and a great sword was given to him, that is a spiritual and evil sword with which not the bodies, but the souls of the reprobates are killed. The Devil uses this sword in two ways: he either deceives people by himself on the inside with a spiritual speech or achieves the killing of the soul by assailing them from the outside through the tongues of his fleshly servants. All this is said to have been given him, which means that it was permitted him by the just God who disposes everything.”

“"And when He had opened the third seal. I heard the third living creature saying, Come and see. And, lo, a black horse; and he who sate upon it had a balance in his hand." The black horse signifies famine, for the Lord says, "There shall be famines in divers places; "but the word is specially extended to the times of Antichrist, when there shall be a great famine, and when all shall be injured. Moreover, the balance in the hand is the examining scales, wherein He might show forth the merits of every individual.”

“I believe that the third living creature here is the man and that [this passage] shows the fall of men and for this reason his punishment because of his inclination toward sin by the power of free will.… We think that the "black horse" depicts the sorrow that comes upon those who have fallen away from faith in Christ on account of the abundance of torments. The "balance" is he who tests those who either by inconstancy of mind or by vainglory have fallen from the faith through weakness of the body.”

“And behold, a black horse, etc. The black horse represents a crowd of false brothers, who have the balance of right profession, but harm their companions through works of darkness. For when it is said, in the midst of the creatures, Do not harm, it is shown that there is someone there who harms. About this advancing horse, the Apostle says: Fightings without, fears within.”

“And when he had opened the third seal, I heard the third living creature saying: Come, and see. And behold a black horse, and he that sat on him had a pair of scales in his hand. By the blackness of this horse is represented that hunger of the wicked by which they long to devour eagerly the body of Christ and to send it into the stomach of their evilness. Their rider has a pair of scales in his hand because he seeks to buy the lives of the good with temporal payments in order to be able to satiate his hunger and that of his people. He held this pair of scales in his hand when he offered one fruit to eat, and bought the whole world to cause its ruin. One should know indeed that the Devil first takes away the food that consists of hearing the Word of God, so that he may the more easily absorb people to increase his body when they suffer from starvation because they are deprived of spiritual food; whence the Lord says through the prophet, Behold I will send forth a famine into the land: not a famine of bread, nor a thirst of water, but of hearing the word of God. [Am. 8:11] Indeed the Lord does this by forsaking people, and the Devil by invading them. Yet how could those who are God's grain, wine, and oil, suffer from this famine? No; let the chaff, husks, and oil dregs suffer from it, and let them, who are worth no price, fall in with the pair of scales; not those who have been redeemed by the blood of Christ; whence it is said soon after that:”

“He is speaking of the church in the figures of the wheat and barley. He speaks either of those who are great and who are least in the church or of those who are leaders and the people. However, one two-pound weight is no less than three two-pound weights, for the same perfection subsists both in the unity and in the trinity. Thus, the Lord said that the leaven was hidden in the three measures of meal, showing the teaching of wisdom that from something small the whole people are consecrated by the mystical number of the undivided Trinity. But this teaches also that there is one price for both the wheat and the barley, that is, that although one person may exceed another in merit, both have nevertheless been redeemed by one price.”

“I think that the different numbers of one and three are mentioned on account of the diversity of personal habitations. In the one denarius is indicated eternal life that is common to all even though [they live] among many mansions. And if one is there regarded as more sublime than another according to merits or is given a greater reward, yet no one is thought to be preeminent in comparison with another. For where there is a single immortality to each, there a common eternity exists for all. So also in the wine and oil he prohibits the dishonoring of the power of the sacraments, since that is the chrismation and the precious blood. Therefore we read, "What does he have which is good and beautiful, unless it be the fruit of the elect and producing virgins as wine." And in the psalm: "Wine gladdens the heart of man, and his face is made cheerful in oil."”

“And I heard as it were a voice in the midst of the four living creatures, saying: Two pounds of wheat for a penny, and thrice two pounds of barley for a penny, and see thou hurt not the wine and the oil. This voice sounded in the midst of the four living creatures, that is in the midst of the Church, when, after the nations had been united in faith, the divine power restrained the Devil from hurting the elect; as if he were told by mockery, "The rider of the white horse has chosen and purchased the wheat, barley, wine, and oil for one penny; and he has left for you the chaff, husks, and oil dregs." So one two-pound measure, which is made up of two sextarii, is the Church based on love of God and neighbor from the two Testaments. However we should understand here one Church consisting of the holy preachers or men of great merit, not of everyone in general. Indeed it is not without reason that barley is here mentioned after the wheat. Therefore let us take the two pounds of wheat as representing the new preachers of the Church, coming from two peoples, and men more outstanding in virtues, who, after being shattered by the mill of tribulations and cooked by the fire of persecutions, have deserved to become a beautiful white bread for Christ. Let us take thrice two pounds of barley as representing the lives of the inferiors and weak from both peoples. Note also that the price of the wheat and of the barley is the same, because even though the work of the saints is unequal, they were nonetheless bought for the same price, and they will receive the same penny after their work. [Ref. Matt. 20:1-16] Furthermore, it should be noted that the same idea is repeated when it is said afterwards See thou hurt not the wine and the oil. How indeed could the Church not be wine and oil when it is trodden like a grape in the wine press of oppressions and dissolved as a crushed olive in the oil press of straits?”

“"And when He had opened the fourth seal, I heard the fourth living creature saying, Come and see. And, lo, a pale horse; and he who sate upon him was named Death." For the pale horse and he who sate upon him bore the name of Death. These same things also the Lord had promised among the rest of the coming destructions-great pestilences and deaths; since, moreover, he says:- "And hell followed him." That is, it was waiting for the devouring of many unrighteous souls. This is the pale horse.”

“And when he had opened the fourth seal, I heard the voice of the fourth living creature, saying: Come, and see. And behold a pale horse, and he that sat upon him, his name was Death, and hell followed him. The people represented by the pale horse are the same as those represented by the red horse, their spiritual death being now symbolized by the pallor of the horse. It is right to say that death, that is the Devil intending to fight against the living, sits on them, because he seeks to extinguish the lives of the elect by the agency of those he has already killed spiritually. Hell means those in whom death dwells. Therefore hell follows death, because the wicked imitate the Devil. We may also understand by the pale horse the heretics specifically. And power was given to him over the four parts of the earth, to kill with sword, with famine, and with death, and with the beasts of the earth. There are two parts in this world, namely Christ's and the Devil's; but Christ's part is not divided, according to this: One is my dove; [Song 6:8] whereas the Devil's part is divided into four parts: pagans, Jews, heretics, and bad Catholics. Therefore there are as many plagues as there are parts of the Devil. It has already been explained how he kills with sword, with famine, and with death. As for the beasts, by them are represented ungoverned pulsions. So our enemy kills the souls of the reprobates with beasts because when fleshly pulsions are not restrained by the cages of the divine commandments, they are made wild, so to speak, by the impulse of diabolic incitement, and hurl the lives of the wretched down every precipice.”

“It is the breaking of the fourth seal and the beginning of the release from the sin of Adam's transgression. For this release is the indicator of reconciliation with God. For if "our sins separate us from God", as Isaiah says (Isa. 59:2), then their removal brings us back into fellowship. But what is the remedy? The wounds of Christ, through which we have been freed (see 1 Peter 2:24; Isa. 53:5). For since we were condemned by the pleasure of tasting, we have been healed by its opposites. Opposite to pleasure are the wounds, which bear the painful sensation, all of which Christ endured on our behalf, through which we were led to the corruption of death, but He endured it through opposites: through obedience, disobedience (see Rom. 5:19); through painful submission, pleasure; through the brave placing of His hands upon the cross, which had rashly touched the forbidden tree. Of which it is said to have occurred, by the command of the fourth living creature saying, "Come." I looked, and behold, a pale horse; and the one sitting on it was named Death, and Hades followed with him. And they were given authority over a fourth of the earth. The pale horse is a symbol of wrath; for the bile is pale green, and so it is called by physicians. Death and Hades were indeed sent forth spiritually to overthrow the deceitful demons and to exact justice for the destruction of humanity. However, since the saving work of Christ's passion had not yet been accomplished through the Revelation, by which He atoned all the sins committed against us, the complete destruction of the demons had not yet occurred; rather, only a quarter part had been destroyed. This destruction is metaphorically called a slaughter and famine by those who long ago worshipped them; and death, the end of their tyranny, is brought about through death itself, and their annihilation by the beasts of the earth; beasts of the earth being the passions of pride and vanity in the demons. Though these demons are earthly by nature, as they delight in the earthly passions that afflict those on earth, even though they have a spiritual nature, they are weakened and consumed as they are cast out from their dominion over humanity.”

“There are two parts in the world, that which belongs to God and that of the devil. That which belongs to the devil is further divided into three parts, which are both within and outside [the church]. These are the Gentiles, false brothers and those separated by open error or schism. And these three parts are those that war against the one. This one is said to consist of three fourths, either because it believes in the threefold unity or because it is distinguished into orders by the goodly variation of three vocations, that of the virgins, of the widows and of the married. He says that now power is given in these three fourths. He speaks of the church which is one, and because the threefold vocation relates to one head, it consists from the three fourths in the stability of a square. As it says, "built upon the foundation of the apostles and the prophets, Christ Jesus himself being the chief cornerstone." He foretells that the church will be placed into stress by the attacks of evil people, from the Gentiles, from false brothers and by heretical depravity. And this is also to be recognized in the number of the messengers, that the very same good would oppose three evil enemies—the red horse with the sword, the second, black horse with the balance, and the third, pale horse with the sign of death, for the sword signifies war, the black horse famine and the pale horse death. And since he mentions the plagues one by one, he foretells all the future outbreaks of plagues by enumerating them in or through the third, the names of the beasts being added. We may remain undecided whether the speech is literal or figurative. For a visible sword is commonly used against the body, while a spiritual sword is used against the soul. Similarly concerning famine, it can mean here either a famine of the Word of God or a famine that affects the body. And likewise concerning death, it can here mean either eternal death that affects souls or that temporal death that concerns bodies. Nonetheless, it is clear that the fourth good part, which is opposed by the three evils, is made to struggle in time by all of these visible persecutions. For those who are called according to the purpose of the will of God shall remain in the perfect number of the elect, especially those whom he wills to be preserved by the inviolate sacraments of the wine and oil. For when he said, "Do not harm the wine and oil," he was indicating the price of redemption in the wine and the anointing of baptism in the oil. Indeed, the Lord clearly said in the Gospel, "Father, those whom you have given to me, I have guarded, and none of them is lost but the son of perdition."”

“In the pale horse we perceive evil people who never cease to incite persecutions. And these three horses are one, who came out after the white horse and against it. And they have as their rider the devil, who is death. And so, the three horses are interpreted to be war, famine, and pestilence. For in the Gospel, the Lord foretold of these things, and they have already occurred, and as the day of judgment draws nearer will occur even more.”

“This sequence of events has happened before and reflects also contemporary occurrences. For as Eusebius says in the eighth chapter of the ninth book of his Ecclesiastical History, at the height of the persecution, when Maximinus was Roman emperor, both famine and pestilence along with other things fell upon them, so that such an innumerable multitude perished that they could not be buried. At that time indeed the Christians zealously undertook the task of burying the dead and by their love of humanity led those who had been deceived to the recognition of the truth. Moreover, the Armenians resisted the Romans, he says, so that many were killed with the sword and the bodies of the dead were eaten by dogs. Finally, those left alive began to kill the dogs, fearing that they themselves might die and that the living would become their tombs. For it was not impossible that even wild animals shared the same meal with dogs on account of the abundance of food. We know that even in our own times similar things have happened.”

“And behold, a pale horse, etc. Heretics who mask themselves as Catholics, worthy of the inhabiting death, drag after them a host of the lost. For the devil and his ministers are metaphorically called death and hell, as they are the cause of death and hell for many. It can also be simply understood that here the spiritually dead, there eternal punishment follows.”

“But for those who are white and unstained within, it is most suitable to use white and simple garments. Clearly and plainly, therefore, Daniel the prophet says, "Thrones were set, and upon them sat one like the Ancient of days, and His vesture was white as snow." The Apocalypse says also that the Lord Himself appeared wearing such a robe. It says also, "I saw the souls of those that had witnessed, beneath the altar, and there was given to each a white robe." And if it were necessary to seek for any other colour, the natural colour of truth should suffice.”

“How is it that the region of paradise, which was revealed in the spirit through John as being "under the altar," contains no other souls but those of the martyrs? How is it that Perpetua, that bravest martyr of Christ, on the day of her death saw only the souls of the martyrs in paradise, unless it be that the sword that guarded the entrance allowed none to pass save those that had died in Christ and not in Adam? Those who die this new death for God, and violently as Christ did, are welcomed into a special abode. Here, then, is the difference between pagan and Christian in death: If you lay down your life for God as the Paraclete recommends, then it will not be of some gentle fever in a soft bed but in the torture of martyrdom. You must take up your cross and follow him, according to the precept of Christ. The only key that unlocks the gates of paradise is your own blood.”

“But since I know, beloved brethren, that very many are eager, either on account of the burden or the pain of smarting wrongs, to be quickly avenged of those who act harshly and rage against them, we must not withhold the fact in the furthest particular, that placed as we are in the midst of these storms of a jarring world, and, moreover, the persecutions both of Jews or Gentiles, and heretics, we may patiently wait for the day of (God's) vengeance, and not hurry to revenge our suffering with a querulous haste, since it is written, "Wait ye upon me, saith the Lord, in the day of my rising up for a testimony; for my judgment is to the congregations of the nations, that I may take hold on the kings, and pour out upon them my fury." The Lord commands us to wait, and to bear with brave patience the day of future vengeance; and He also speaks in the Apocalypse, saying, "Seal not the sayings of the prophecy of this book: for now the time is at hand for them that persevere in injuring to injure, and for him that is filthy to be filthy still; but for him that is righteous to do things still more righteous, and likewise for him that is holy to do things still more holy. Behold, I come quickly; and my reward is with me, to render to every man according to his deeds." Whence also the martyrs, crying out and hastening with grief breaking forth to their revenge, are bidden still to wait, and to give patience for the times to be fulfilled and the martyrs to be completed. "And when He had opened," says he, "the fifth seal, I saw under the altar of God the souls of them that were slain for the word of God, and for their testimony; and they cried with a loud voice, saying, How long, O Lord, holy and true, dost Thou not judge and avenge our blood on them that dwell on the earth? And there were given to them each white robes; and it was said unto them that they should rest yet for a little season, until the number of their fellow-servants and brethren is fulfilled, who afterwards shall be slain after their example."”

“"And when He had opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar the souls of them that were slain." He relates that he saw under the altar of God, that is, under the earth, the souls of them that were slain. For both heaven and earth are called God's altar, as saith the law, commanding in the symbolical form of the truth two altars to be made,-a golden one within, and a brazen one without. But we perceive that the golden altar is thus called heaven, by the testimony that our Lord bears to it; for He says, "When thou bringest thy gift to the altar" (assuredly our gifts are the prayers which we offer), "and there rememberest that thy brother hath ought against thee, leave there thy gift before the altar." Assuredly prayers ascend to heaven. Therefore heaven is understood to be the golden altar which was within; for the priests also were accustomed to enter once in the year-as they who had the anointing-to the golden altar, the Holy Spirit signifying that Christ should do this once for all. As the golden altar is acknowledged to be heaven, so also by the brazen altar is understood the earth, under which is the Hades,-a region withdrawn from punishments and fires, and a place of repose for the saints, wherein indeed the righteous are seen and heard by the wicked, but they cannot be carried across to them.”

“And when he had opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar of God the souls of them that were slain for the word of God, and for the testimony which they held. By the souls of the slain we understand the souls of all the elect, who are oppressed with either physical or spiritual attacks from the reprobates; for there are two kinds of martyrs: one apparent, the other hidden. By the altar we understand Christ: we offer on him our sacrifices to God the Father when, imitating his only begotten Son, we appear in his sight as a living sacrifice. Therefore the souls of the slain are under the altar because they are under our Mediator; but if by the altar we understand the elect themselves, they are under themselves, because they have not yet been clothed in immortality of the body.”

“Our hope is that we may sooner reign and not be slaves any longer. Even if it were not prescribed to ask in prayer for the coming of his kingdom, we would, of our own accord, have expressed this desire in our eagerness to embrace the object of our hope. With indignation the souls of the martyrs beneath the altar cry aloud to the Lord, "How long, O Lord, will you refrain from avenging our blood on those who dwell on the earth?" For at least from the end of the world vengeance for them is ordained. Indeed, as quickly as possible, O Lord, may your kingdom come! This is the prayer of Christians; this shall bring shame to the heathens; this shall bring joy to the angels; it is for the coming of this kingdom that we are harassed now, or rather, it is for this coming that we pray.”

“He who sees all things would have us to know that these saints, therefore-that is, the souls of the slain-are asking for vengeance for their blood, that is, of their body, from those that dwell upon the earth; but because in the last time, moreover, the reward of the saints will be perpetual, and the condemnation of the wicked shall come, it was told them to wait. And for a solace to their body, there were given unto each of them white robes. They received, says he, white robes, that is, the gift of the Holy Spirit.”

“This ought not be understood in a carnal manner, as though they were inflamed by animosity and wished revenge. We know that we are to love our enemies through an abundance of love, but it is manifest that they prayed against the kingdom of sin and were praying out of a desire for that kind of kingdom for which we say, "Thy kingdom come!"”

“[The psalmist begs] that the Lord avenge the blood of the faithful, who endured martyrdom for his name. Vengeance is the means by which force and injustice are repelled by just retribution. But there the prayer seems to be directed toward the conversion of the enemy. For when temporal vengeance is exacted from them in this world, they escape the destruction of eternal damnation; it is in this sense that we read in Revelation that the souls of martyrs under God's altar demand to be avenged by divine decree. This vengeance is to be interpreted as we have defined it, for saintly people do not seek a cruel vengeance since they accept the precept "Pray for your enemies, do good to those that hate you," and the like. Finally the Lord himself, who executes most powerfully his own commands, spoke these words on the cross: "Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do."”

“And they cried with a loud voice, saying: How long, O Lord (holy and true) dost thou not revenge our blood on them that dwell on the earth? What does it mean that the souls of the saints ask for revenge for their blood about the persecutions, if not that they are waiting for the day of the last judgment? It is not by the stomach being drawn by the gullet that the words of the souls are formed, but their great cry is a great longing. However, since a mind that is asking for something is generally moved in a different way from a mind that is asked for something, and since the souls of the saints cling to God in such a way that they rest in clinging to him, how can they be said to ask for this, while it is certain that they are ignorant of neither the will of God nor things that will happen? One should know then that the reason why they are said to ask something from him while they are in him is not that they long for a revenge because it is in disagreement with the will of him whom they see, but they receive from him himself the task to ask from him what they know he wants to do.”

“But if anyone with precipitate haste rashly thinks that he can grant remission of sins to all or dares to rescind the precepts of the Lord, not only is this of no advantage to the lapsed but it is even a hindrance. Not to have observed the judgment of the Lord, and to think that his mercy is not first to be implored, but after condemning the Lord to presume on one's own power, is to have provoked his wrath. Under the altar of God the souls of the slain martyrs cry out with a loud voice, saying, "How long, O Lord holy and true, do you refrain from judging and from avenging our blood on those who dwell on earth?" And they are ordered to be quiet and to continue to have patience. Does someone think that anyone can wish to become good by remitting and pardoning sins at random or that he can defend others before he himself is vindicated? The martyrs order something to be done. If just, if lawful, if not contrary to the Lord himself, they are to be done by the priest of God. Let the agreement be ready and easy on the part of the one obeying, if there has been religious moderation on the part of him asking. The martyrs order something to be done. If what they order is not written in the law of the Lord, we must first know, that they have obtained from the Lord what they ask, then do what they order. For what has been assured by man's promise cannot be seen at once to have been granted by the divine majesty.”

“The Word of God shows that when the time of vengeance comes, conversion will not then help the evil person evade punishment but avenging wrath will destroy him with due damnation. For that will be a time not of remission but of retribution, not of forgiveness but of revenge. This is put off by the divine patience so that the number of the saints can be filled up. The blessed John in the Apocalypse recalls that it is the saints who asked for this vengeance in these words, "How long will it be, holy and true master, before you sit in judgment and avenge our blood on the inhabitants of the earth?" And to teach those who are joined to this company that the time for vengeance is being put off by the highest ordinance, he adds right away. "Each of them was given a white robe, and they were told to be patient a little while longer until the number was filled of their fellow servants and brothers."”

“We believe that this was revealed to them by the knowledge of divine wisdom, that since the impious will inevitably be punished with eternal punishment and since the fountain of heavenly grace will flow forth unto the end of the world, many will until then be taken into the company of the holy martyrs. And when they received this response, they were filled with an inexpressible joy, which we believe is aptly symbolized by the white robes. Therefore, each one received a white robe, so that through the perfection of love that is poured out into the hearts of believers through the Holy Spirit, they might be content with this consolation and prefer rather to wait for the completion of the number of other brothers.”

“In this passage the saints are shown praying for the consummation of the world. Therefore, they are told to have patience until the completion of the brothers, so that "apart from them they would not be made perfect," as the apostle says. The white robes reveal the brightness that appears on them because of their virtues, in which they are clothed, although they "had not yet received the promises." And so, putting away every dullness, in the hope for these things, which they see in the spirit, they rightly rejoice, resting in the bosom of Abraham. For to many of the saints it is said that each receives a place worthy of the doer of virtue through which they are judged of their future glory.”

“And white robes were given to every one of them one; and it was said to them, that they should rest yet for a little time, till the number of their fellow servants, and of their brethren, who are to be slain, even as they, should be filled up. What is meant by the white robes but the reward of martyrs? Indeed, before the resurrection, the elect are said to have received one robe each because so far they enjoy eternal happiness only in the soul. Note also that the words of the souls are what lovers desire; then it is the role of God to reply that they should wait for their brethren to be gathered together, and it is theirs to willingly instill the patience to wait into their minds. So they are wishing for the resurrection of bodies, but they hear that they should wait willingly for their brethren to be gathered together.”

“"And I saw, when he had opened the sixth seal, there was a great earthquake." In the sixth seal, then, was a great earthquake: this is that very last persecution. "And the sun became black as sackcloth of hair." The sun becomes as sackcloth; that is, the brightness of doctrine will be obscured by unbelievers. "And the entire moon became as blood." By the moon of blood is set forth the Church of the saints as pouring out her blood for Christ.”

“In the sixth seal we recognize the sixth age of the world. Toward the conclusion of this age the last persecution will come, and it says that the vehement shock of this persecution will shake the whole world like an earthquake. The sun and the moon are Christ and the church. The sun is said to become black, because many will be terrified at the last persecution and will deny them. It says, "Even if our gospel is veiled, it is veiled to those who are perishing, for the god of this world has blinded the minds of the unbelievers, so that the brightness of the gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the image of God, might not shine." And therefore it says, "so that even the elect, if possible, are led into error." In this manner is the sun said to become black, when the power of Christ is hidden, or doctrine is obscured for a time, or defense is delayed when the impious are allowed to attack the saints. And therefore the prophet says, "Shall you leave this unnoticed, that the impious swallows the righteous?" And indeed of Christ himself we read, "Behold, this child is set for the fall and resurrection of many, and for a sign that is spoken against." In him some make progress; others, turning away from him, incur ruin. "The moon turned to blood." It is usually foretold that the church will shed more blood for Christ when the great outbreak of persecutions occurs. Therefore, this speaks of her own blood, not the blood of another as was the case with the red horse, which was described as red with another's blood.”

“We think that this passage presents a transition from the times of the persecutions to the time before the arrival of the false Christ. For it has been prophesied that at that time there would be such tribulations, such as we know have never happened before. Indeed, throughout the Scriptures "earthquake" often signifies the change of things. The phrase "once again I will shake" signifies "the removal of what is shaken," as the apostle says. And in the Old Testament it is said concerning the crossing of the Israelites from Egypt, "the earth quaked, the heavens poured." The blackness of the sun and the dark, bloody appearance of the moon signify the darkness that will come upon those overtaken by the wrath of God, as Cyril often remarked.”

“And I saw when he had opened the sixth seal: there was a great earthquake, and the sun became black as sackcloth of hair: and the moon became as blood. By the earthquake we should understand the last persecution under the Antichrist. It is called great because, according to the Lord's saying, there will then be a tribulation such as has never been, neither shall be. [Matt. 24:21] The sun is Christ, according to this: Unto you that fear God, the Sun of justice shall arise. [Cf. Mal. 4:2] This sun will be darkened for the last people when those who looked as though they were shining in the body of Christ fall into the darkness of overt error. The sun may also indicate the shining life of those who preach. So in the last times the sun will be as sackcloth of hair because the shining life of those who preach will appear rough and despicable in the eyes of the reprobates. Indeed cilice is fit for criminals and sinners. By the moon turned into blood we recognize the holy Church stained in the elect by the blood of suffering. It is said to be entirely stained because no one who remains in the faith of the Mediator will be immune from that last persecution; whence Joel says, The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood: before the great and manifest day doth come. [Variant of Joel 2:31 close to the LXX version, where it is numbered 3:4]”

“The sun signifies spiritual combat. In this regard, "the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give her light." When the fight will be between Christ and Antichrist, between the teaching of truth and that of falsity, then "the sun" will become "black as sackcloth of hair," and a certain teacher of truth or superior in truth shall be obscured by errors, while others will stand firm, although they may seem to be darkened in their reputation.”

“The stars signify those in the church who for a time seem, according to human opinion, to stand out from the number of the elect, but who, when the fury of a sharp persecution comes near, are said to fall from their high status as though from heaven. The Lord foretold this in the Gospel, saying, "For then there will be tribulation such as has never been or shall be. And unless those days had been shortened, no flesh would have been saved. But for the sake of the elect, those days will be shortened." The tree represents the church, and the sour fruit, which another translation calls "unripened," represents people. The winds are the turbulent turmoil of persecution by which people are shaken and fall from the church. And it is proper that they are compared with the unripened fruit of the fig tree. For they are either unfaithful and, "twisted like a deceitful bow," prefer this to the faith that they have abandoned, or because of the immaturity of the time the church suffers in them a tearful miscarriage, although it had sought for a happy birth at their conception.”

“"The stars fell." As has been already written of those deceived by Antiochus, this refers also to those who think themselves to be lights of the world but who will fall, being crushed by the events of that time, as the Lord said, "to lead astray, if it were possible, even the elect by the great tribulation." This is perhaps the reason the fig tree is taken as a parable, for when the wind of the devil shakes it, it casts down its immature fruit that is not yet ripened by the heat of temptations or made sweet by grace. We know that this can be understood in either a good or in a bad sense, whether from the two baskets of good and evil figs that appear in Jeremiah or from the fig tree that Christ made to wither and that mentioned in the Song. But whether these things will occur in a visible manner when Christ comes in glory as judge, only he knows who has the hidden treasures of wisdom and knowledge.”

“And the stars of heaven fell upon the earth, as the fig tree casteth its green figs when it is shaken by a great wind. Heaven is the Church of the saints, which, as it contains countless lives of saints, shines in the night of this life as if stars were radiating light on it from above. Therefore the stars falling from heaven upon the earth mean those who seem to stick to the faith or works of the saints rushing down to the iniquity of overt error out of love for the earth. This is also what is meant by the fig tree casting its green figs, for when all the Church is shaken by the last persecution, it is as if a fig tree were shaken by a great wind. Furthermore, another translation has "bitter green fig."”

“Besides, the belief that everything was made from nothing will be impressed upon us by that ultimate dispensation of God which will bring back all things to nothing. For "the very heaven shall be rolled together as a scroll; '" nay, it shall come to nothing along with the earth itself, with which it was made in the beginning.”

“For at that time the trumpet shall sound, and awake those that sleep from the lowest parts of the earth, righteous and sinners alike. And every kindred, and tongue, and nation, and tribe shall be raised in the twinkling of an eye; and they shall stand upon the face of the earth, waiting for the coming of the righteous and terrible Judge, in fear and trembling unutterable. For the river of fire shall come forth in fury like an angry sea, and shall burn up mountains and hills, and shall make the sea vanish, and shall dissolve the atmosphere with its heat like wax. The stars of heaven shall fall, the sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood. The heaven shall be rolled together like a scroll: the whole earth shall be burnt up by reason of the deeds done in it, which men did corruptly, in fornications, in adulteries, and in lies and uncleanness, and in idolatries, and in murders, and in battles. For there shall be the new heaven and the new earth.”

“"And the heaven withdrew as a scroll that is rolled up." For the heaven to be rolled away, that is, that the Church shall be taken away. "And every mountain and the islands were moved from their places." Mountains and islands removed from their places intimate that in the last persecution all men departed from their places; that is, that the good will be removed, seeking to avoid the persecution.”

“Rightly does he suggest that the heaven, that is, the church, withdrew like a scroll rolled out rather than as a scroll rolled up. For whatever is rolled up cannot ever be known by anyone, while that which is rolled out is uncovered ever more. And so when these things have been made manifest, [the church] withdraws and prudently avoids persecution, so that concealed from those outside she might not be seen. But through the unity of the Spirit she is wholly known to herself—that is, to her own to whom it is given to believe. And [the church] is cautious towards those who are not known and toward the stranger, and she hides herself through a spirit of discretion, lest becoming known she be betrayed. Therefore, John wrote, "Do not believe every spirit, but test the spirits to see whether they are of God."”

“And the heaven departed as a book folded up. Just as the reprobates fall from the Church not physically but through their transgressions, so does the same Church, in its elect, depart from among the wicked not by a physical departure but by faith and work. Moreover it is right for the Church to be represented by a book, because it contains in itself the commandments for all heavenly life, not only written on parchments with a pen, but also written on the fleshly tablets of the heart by the Spirit of God. Note also that the book is said to be folded up, for just as no one can see what a folded-up book contains except those for whom it is voluntarily opened, so does the Church of the elect, in time of persecution, shut its innermost parts for strangers and discreetly open them inside for its people. And every mountain, and the islands were moved out of their places. By the mountains we should understand men of very high dignity who surpass others in words and virtues, about whom it is said, I have lifted up my eyes to the mountains. [Ps. 120:1] By the islands we understand people of lesser justice who still waver in tribulations. So the fact that mountains and islands are said to have been moved out of their places is related to the above interpretation in which the Church of the saints departs by faith and work from the company of the wicked; for a familiarity with the wicked it was mixed with was a little like its place.”

“"The kings of the earth," that is, those who exert power over it and possess nothing in heaven, they too shall pray with all the great and rich and with the servants of the things below and those free of the service of Christ, that they be hidden by the caves and the rocks and the mountains. For they do not want to experience the divine wrath that with divine consent will pour down upon them either at the coming of the antichrist in the form of punishments from famine and other plagues or in endless torments which are expected after the resurrection.”

“And the kings of the earth, and the princes, and tribunes, and the rich, and the strong, and every bondman, and every freeman, hid themselves in the dens and in the rocks of mountains. The kings are those who govern themselves well. Likewise for the princes, who do not resist vices as well as the kings, but still do so as they can. Likewise, the tribunes have still less power than the princes, but they too nonetheless resist the Devil as they can. By the rich he means the rich in virtues, not in possessions; and by the strong also he means not the strong in body, but in mind. So these people, in the last persecution, presuming nothing of their virtues, hide themselves in the caves and dens of mountains because they seek the intercessions of saints, who are rightly called mountains because they are high in virtues and look down on earthly things, and rightly called rocks because they are strong, as they are necessarily strengthened in Christ, who is a rock. Hence the Lord says in the Gospel, Then they that are in Judea, let them flee to the mountains; [Matt. 24:16] and Solomon, The rabbit, a weak people, maketh its bed in the rock; [Variant of Prov. 30:26] and Isaiah says, They shall go into the holes of rocks, and into the caves of the earth from the face of the strength of the Lord, and from the glory of his majesty, when he shall rise up to strike the earth. [Variant of Is. 2:19] He even tells us that one should do so, saying, Enter thou into the rock, and hide thee in a pit in the ground. [Ibid. 10] These things may also mean heavenly virtues, according to what we read in the book of Job: She abideth among the rocks, and dwelleth among cragged flints, and stony hills, where there is no access. [Job 39:28] But let us hear what the fleeing people say to either the angels or the saints.”

“And, he says, the kings of the earth and the great men and the commanders and the rich and the powerful and every slave and free man hid themselves in the caves and among the rocks of the mountains; and they said to the mountains and to the rocks, "Fall on us and hide us from the face of Him who sits on the throne and from the wrath of the Lamb, for the great day of their wrath has come, and who can stand?" Kings again and great men, commanders and the rich and powerful, he calls wretched demons, as those who began to oppress the earth through violence and deceit; but slaves and free men, those who excel among the demons and are subject to them. As for hiding themselves in caves and in the rocks of the mountains, and yet saying, "You will fall upon us and hide us," this is spoken figuratively; it hints at fugitives attempting to escape the punishment imposed on them by Christ. For if an invisible punishment and retribution were not inflicted upon them, what is the meaning of what was said by the prophet Isaiah concerning Christ's presence: "I have trodden the winepress alone, and among the nations there is no man with me; I have trampled them in my anger, and crushed them in my wrath, and their blood I have poured out upon the earth"? (Isa. 63:2-3) And what is the meaning of calling the God-hated [θεοστυγεῖς] demons by Matthew: "What have we to do with you, Son of God? Have you come to torment us?" (Matt. 8:29) But one might understand that these things spoken in the Revelation are not only the sufferings of demons, but also of the lawless Jews who crucified the Lord on the cross, who, being oppressed by the war against the Romans, became fugitives in the mountains and caves and the clefts of the earth, and were everywhere tormented by distress and anguish.”

“And they say to the mountains and the rocks: Fall upon us, and hide us from the face of him that sitteth upon the throne and from the wrath of the Lamb. As if they were overtly saying, "Bend your hearts with mercy, and protect us from the wrath of the judge with kind intercessions. Do not hide us from his face when he is having mercy, but hide us from his face when he is angry." As for why they are so terrified, they also say it afterwards:”

“And who will be able to stand? Certainly, the one who now strives to watch, to stand firm in faith, and to act manfully. If you interpret this earthquake literally as referring to the very day of judgment, it is not surprising that earthly kings and princes, fearful of the holy mountains, seek refuge, as we read has already happened in the case of the rich man clothed in purple and the poor Lazarus.”

“For the great day of his wrath is come, and who shall be able to stand? As if they were saying, "If even a saint is terrified by the wrath of that God, who of us shall hold out?" We may disregard all that has been said about saints, and understand those things as referring to the reprobates: the mountains are the proud; the islands are the greedy (according to this: Be silent, you that dwell in the island, the merchants of Sidon); [Is. 23:2] the kings, princes, and tribunes represent the reprobates according to their qualities; by the rich he means those who need no help from others to do evil; by the strong he means the strong at drunkenness; [Ref. to Is. 5:22] by bondman he means bondman of sin; by freeman he means free of justice. There is no doubt that when the future judgment is imminent, all these will run to seek the help of demons as they are desperate and do not dare to come to any of the saints. This is indeed what is meant by their seeking hiding places in the dens and rocks of mountains; but how will demons defend others from the furious wrath when they will be the first ones to receive it? Finally, all this inspires listeners with great fear even if taken literally, but this is not a reason to violently reduce figurative statements to their literal meaning.”