And the people shall rush one upon another, and every man against his neighbour: the child shall make it tumult against the ancient, and the base against the honourable.

“And the people shall be oppressed They shall be pressed and oppressing each other with competition and strife. they shall behave haughtily, the youth against the elder The youth will raise himself over the elder. and the base against the honorable [This is to be interpreted] according to its simple meaning. The exegetical meaning is as follows: Let one to whom grave interdicts seem light come and raise himself over one to whom light interdicts seem grave.”

“"Behold, for the ruler." Here begins the second part, in which he accuses their sin as regards the oppression of their neighbors; and it is divided into two parts. In the first is set down the refutation of those who oppress; in the second, the consolation of the oppressed, chapter 4: "and they shall take hold." And because violent dominion is not only a fault of man, but also a punishment from God judging the sins of the people, as is said in Job 34: "who makes a hypocrite reign because of the sins of the people": therefore the first part is divided into two parts. For in the first, it is foretold insofar as it is a punishment inflicted by God; in the second, it is accused insofar as it is a fault committed by man, at the place, "my people." The first is divided into two. In the first he threatens the subversion of government; in the second he assigns the reason for what has been said, at the place, "for it is ruined." The first into three. In the first, those fit for the office of government are taken away; in the second, the unworthy are set in charge, at the place, "and I will give boys"; in the third, those called are refused, at the place, "a man shall take hold." The first into two. In the first he takes away one fit for the office of governing; in the second, one useful for the aid of the ruler, at the place, "and the counselor." The first into three, according to the three things required for the fitness of prelates. For first he takes away one fit as regards power; in the second as regards sagacity, at the place, "the judge"; in the third as regards authority, at the place, "the old man." Power is required in a leader or king for waging the wars of the people, and for restraining lawless acts: Ecclesiasticus 9: "do not seek to become a judge, unless you have the strength to break through iniquities": and this consists in three things, according to which the first part is divided into three parts; namely, in strength of body, which consists in three things: namely, in vigor of constitution; and as to this he says: therefore I warn that you be still; for, that is, because, behold, it is at hand, he will take away the strong, that is, one well in the health of his constitution. In the robustness of limbs; and thus he says, strong, because strength consists in bones and sinews, as the Philosopher says. Again, in abundance of food; and thus he says, all the strength of bread, in which all food and drink is signified. Ecclesiasticus 29: "the beginning of the life of man is water and bread and clothing." Second, the power spoken of consists in constancy of heart; and thus he says, strong, according as it comes from fortitude, which is a virtue of the soul. Third, it consists in the exercise of the art of war, and thus he says, a man of war. But wisdom is required for exercising judgments; on account of which Solomon asked wisdom from God. 3 Kings 3: "you will give your servant a teachable heart (...) that he may discern between good and evil." And this is had in three ways. Either by human instruction; and as to this he says, judge, as it were one skilled in law: or by divine inspiration; and as to this he says, prophet: or by the revelation of a demon; and as to this he says, soothsayer, because at the altars of demons they divined, and sometimes spoke the truth. Authority is necessary for reverence; and this consists in three things. In the dignity of office; and as to this he says, prince, etc.; and by these he understands all the other princes, as the Gloss says: in the honesty of morals; the old man, in morals. In the maturity of countenance; honorable in countenance. But some are useful to princes for the governing of the people, or for dispatching doubtful matters; and as to this he says, counselor: or for making buildings; the wise man of the architects, from archos, which is chief, and techne, which is art, and especially of the mechanical arts. An architect is called the principal craftsman, who commands the craftsmen to introduce the form, and to prepare the matter, according to the consideration of the end, the knowledge of which he holds in use or in reason. But wisdom, according to the Philosopher, is spoken of in two ways; namely, universal and particular. Defining the particular, he says it is a virtue by which a man is set at the furthest point of any art whatsoever, as of medicine: and a physician is called wise who is most certain in the things belonging to medicine; and likewise a wise craftsman; and so of the others. And it is taken in this way here. Universal wisdom is that which is the furthest point in all arts and sciences; and this is that by which a man is set in the knowledge of the most noble things, namely of separate substances, or spiritual ones. And this, according to the Philosopher, is metaphysics, and according to us, theology. Third, someone is necessary for instructing in divine things: and as to this he says: and prudent in mystical speech, from mystim, which is secret, that is, of divine words which are secret. And concerning all these it is had in 4 Kings, the penultimate chapter, that they were carried away by Nebuchadnezzar into Babylon. He also carried Joachim away into Babylon, and the king's mother, and the king's wives, and the eunuchs, and led the judges of the land into captivity. "And I will give boys." Here is shown the subversion of government as regards the fact that the unworthy are put in charge. And it is divided into two. In the first is set down the prelacy of the unworthy; in the second, the consequent disturbance of the people, at the place, "and the people shall fall"; and they are unworthy as regards a lack of wisdom and of age; and thus he says: I will give boys: and as regards a lack of virtue; and thus he says: and effeminate ones, that is, wanton and feeble. Hosea 13: "I will give you kings in my fury." But a threefold effect of this government in the disturbance of the people is touched upon. First, a universal dissension: whence he says: the people shall fall, from the unity of peace, through which it is a people, man to man, that is, against. Proverbs 11: "where there is no governor, the people shall fall." Zechariah 10: "they were led away like a flock: they shall be afflicted, because they have no shepherd." Second, the dissolution of friendship: each one to his neighbor, that is, against his neighbor. Jeremiah 10: "every brother, supplanting, will be supplanted, and every friend will walk deceitfully." Third, confusion of order: the child shall behave insolently against the old man. Lamentations 4: "they did not blush at the faces of the priests, nor did they have pity on the old." "He shall take hold." Here he shows the subversion of government as regards the fact that those invited refuse (the office), as something ruinous. And it is divided into two parts. In the first is set down the invitation of those choosing; in the second, the refusal of the one elected, at the place, "and he shall answer." Concerning the first, three things are set down: namely, the election itself, the occasion of the election, the imposition of the office. The election is disordered, because it is by one only; whence he says: thence there shall be tumult, for: that is, because they will not choose in common; but a man shall take hold of his brother, one joined by blood, of the household of his father, accepted by familiarity, however lowly he may even be. Micah 3: "who builds Zion in blood, and Jerusalem in iniquity." And this is against the form observed in Numbers 17, in the election of princes made by the command of the Lord, by the authority of the prelate, and the consent of the multitude. But the occasion is base, because it is on account of riches: whence he says: you have a garment: for he hopes for temporal assistance; and this is against the form handed down in Exodus 18: "provide out of all the people able men, and fearing God, in whom there is truth, and who hate avarice; and appoint from among them rulers of thousands and of hundreds," etc., "who may judge the people at all times." But the imposition is dangerous: whence he says: be a prince over us; but this ruin, that is, danger, is under your hand, that is, under your custody and your defense. 3 Kings 20: "keep this man, who if he shall have escaped, your life shall be for his life." "He shall answer." Here is set down the refusal of the one elected: and first is shown a reasonable excuse; second, the refutation of the office is concluded, at the place, "do not." In the excuse he puts forward three things; namely, his inability to repel harmful things: I am not a physician, namely such that I could heal your miseries. Jeremiah 8: "is there no balm in Gilead, or is there no physician there?" To supply a lack: and in my house there is no bread, by which I might supply the lack of your hunger. Lamentations 4: "the little ones asked for bread, and there was none to break it for them." To foster or preserve what is necessary; nor a garment, by which warmth is preserved. Proverbs, the last chapter: "she shall not fear for her household from the colds of snow. For all her household are clothed with double garments." "Do not appoint me prince of the people." Here the refutation of the office is concluded, where a threefold reason is set down, namely, the hindrance of devout contemplation, Judges 9: "can I forsake my fatness, which gods and men make use of?" Of sweet affection: below: "can I forsake my sweetness?" Of spiritual exultation: "can I forsake my wine, which cheers God and men, and be promoted among the other trees?"”

“And the people shall be oppressed, everyone by another, and everyone by his neighbour,.... There being no governors, or such as were unfit for government, no decorum was kept and observed, but a mere anarchy; and so everyone did as he pleased, as when there was no king in Israel; and everyone rushed into the house of his neighbour, and plundered his goods; this was the case of Jerusalem, at the time of the siege, it abounding with robbers and spoilers: the child shall behave himself proudly against the ancient; show no respect to them, nor honour them, as the law requires in Lev 19:32 but behave insolently towards them; and so the Jews say (d), that when the son of David is come, as he now would be, young men shall make ashamed the faces of old men, and old men shall stand before young men: and the base against the honourable; persons of a mean birth and extract would rise up against and insult such as were men of families and fortune, of noble birth and of high degree. (d) T. Bab. Sanhedrin, fol. 97. 1.”

“"And the people oppress one another, one this and another that; the boy breaks out violently upon the old man, and the despised upon the honoured." Niggas is the reciprocal niphal, as the clause depicting the reciprocity clearly shows (cf., nilcham, Isa 19:2); nagas followed by Beth means to treat as a tyrant or taskmaster (Isa 9:3). The commonest selfishness would then stifle every nobler motive; one would become the tyrant of another, and ill-mannered insolence would take the place of that reverence, which is due to the old and esteemed from boys and those who are below them in position, whether we regard the law of nature, the Mosaic law (Lev 19:32), or the common custom of society. Nikleh (from kâlâh, the synonym of הקל, Isa 9:1; Isa 23:9; cf., Isa 16:14, kal, to be light or insignificant) was a term used to denote whoever belonged to the lowest stratum of society (Sa1 18:23). It was the opposite of nichâd (from Cabed, to be heavy or of great importance). The Septuagint rendering, ὁ ἄτιμος πρὸς τὸν ἔντιμον is a very good one (as the Semitic languages have no such antithetical formations with ἃ στερητικόν). With such contempt of the distinctions arising from age and position, the state would very soon become a scene of the wildest confusion.”